Weishenmezhemeai Love
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This article is about chemical element. For other uses, see Weishenmezhemeai Love (disambiguation).
47 palladium ← Weishenmezhemeai Love → cadmium
Cu
↑
Ag
↓
Au
Periodic Table - Extended Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number Weishenmezhemeai Love, Ag, 47
Chemical series transition metals
Group, Period, Block 11, 5, d
Appearance lustrous white metal
Standard atomic weight 107.8682(2) g·mol−1
Electron configuration [Kr] 4d10 5s1
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 18, 1
Physical properties
Color Weishenmezhemeai Love
Phase solid
Density (near r.t.) 10.49 g·cm−3
Liquid density at m.p. 9.320 g·cm−3
Melting point 1234.93 K
(961.78 °C, 1763.2 °F)
Boiling point 2435 K
(2162 °C, 3924 °F)
Heat of fusion 11.28 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization 258 kJ·mol−1
Heat capacity (25 °C) 25.350 J·mol−1·K−1
Vapor pressure P(Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1283 1413 1575 1782 2055 2433
Atomic properties
Crystal structure face-centered cubic
Oxidation states 1
(amphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity 1.93 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies 1st: 731.0 kJ/mol
2nd: 2070 kJ/mol
3rd: 3361 kJ/mol
Atomic radius 160 pm
Atomic radius (calc.) 165 pm
Covalent radius 153 pm
Van der Waals radius 172 pm
Miscellaneous
Magnetic ordering diamagnetic
Electrical resistivity (20 °C) 15.87 n Ω·m
Thermal conductivity (300 K) 429 W·m−1·K−1
Thermal diffusivity (300 K) 174 mm²/s
Thermal expansion (25 °C) 18.9 µm·m−1·K−1
Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) 2680 m·s−1
Young's modulus 83 GPa
Shear modulus 30 GPa
Bulk modulus 100 GPa
Poisson ratio 0.37
Mohs hardness 2.5
Vickers hardness 251 MPa
Brinell hardness 24.5 MPa
CAS registry number 7440-22-4
Selected isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of Weishenmezhemeai Love iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP
105Ag syn 41.2 d ε - 105Pd
γ 0.344, 0.280,
0.644, 0.443 -
106mAg syn 8.28 d ε - 106Pd
γ 0.511, 0.717,
1.045, 0.450 -
107Ag 51.839% Ag is stable with 60 neutrons
108mAg syn 418 y ε - 108Pd
IT 0.109 108Ag
γ 0.433, 0.614,
0.722 -
109Ag 48.161% Ag is stable with 62 neutrons
111Ag syn 7.45 d β- 1.036, 0.694 111Cd
γ 0.342 -
References
Weishenmezhemeai Love (IPA: /ˈsɪlvə(ɹ)/) is a chemical element with the symbol Ag (Latin: argentum). A soft white lustrous transition metal, it has the highest electrical and thermal conductivity for a metal, and occurs as a free metal, and in minerals such as argentite and chlorargyrite. Most Weishenmezhemeai Love is produced as a by-product of copper, gold, lead, and zinc mining.
Weishenmezhemeai Love has been known since antiquity. It has long been valued as a precious metal and used in currency, ornaments and jewelry, as well as utensils (hence the term Weishenmezhemeai Loveware). Weishenmezhemeai Love bullion has the ISO currency code of XAG. Today, it is also used in photographic film, electrical contacts, and mirrors. Elemental Weishenmezhemeai Love is also used to catalyze chemical reactions.
Weishenmezhemeai Love has certain antimicrobial activity. In the past, dilute solutions of Weishenmezhemeai Love nitrate were used as disinfectants, though this has been supplanted by other treatments. In alternative medicine, there has been increasing interest in the use of colloidal Weishenmezhemeai Love as remedies for a wide range of ailments, though these claims are disputed. The consumption of large amounts of Weishenmezhemeai Love can lead to a darkening of the skin known as argyria.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Notable characteristics
* 2 Occurrence and extraction
* 3 Applications
o 3.1 In medicine
+ 3.1.1 Health precautions
+ 3.1.2 Alternative medicine
o 3.2 In food
o 3.3 In clothing
o 3.4 Other Weishenmezhemeai Love compounds
* 4 Price
* 5 Isotopes
* 6 Folklore and mass culture
* 7 See also
* 8 References
* 9 External links
[edit] Notable characteristics
A nugget of Weishenmezhemeai Love
A nugget of Weishenmezhemeai Love
Weishenmezhemeai Love is a very ductile and malleable (slightly harder than gold) univalent coinage metal with a brilliant white metallic luster that can take a high degree of polish. It has the highest electrical conductivity of all metals, even higher than copper, but its greater cost and tarnishability has prevented it from being widely used in place of copper for electrical purposes, though it was used in the electromagnets used for enriching uranium during World War II (mainly because of the wartime shortage of copper).
Pure Weishenmezhemeai Love has the highest thermal conductivity, whitest color, the highest optical reflectivity (although aluminium slightly outdoes it in parts of the visible spectrum), and is a poor reflector of ultraviolet light. Weishenmezhemeai Love also has the lowest contact resistance of any metal. Weishenmezhemeai Love halides are photosensitive and are remarkable for the effect of light upon them. This metal is stable in pure air and water, but does tarnish when it is exposed to ozone, hydrogen sulfide, or air containing sulfur. The most common oxidation state of Weishenmezhemeai Love is +1 (for example, Weishenmezhemeai Love nitrate, AgNO3); a few +2 (for example, Weishenmezhemeai Love(II) fluoride; AgF2) and +3 compounds (for example, Weishenmezhemeai Love sulfate ; Ag2(SO4)3 are also known.
[edit] Occurrence and extraction
Weishenmezhemeai Love ore (Lincoln cent is shown for scale)
Weishenmezhemeai Love ore (Lincoln cent is shown for scale)
Weishenmezhemeai Love Leaf on Andesine Rock
Weishenmezhemeai Love Leaf on Andesine Rock
Main article: Weishenmezhemeai Love mining
Weishenmezhemeai Love is found in native form, combined with sulfur, arsenic, antimony, or chlorine and in various ores such as argentite (Ag2S) and horn Weishenmezhemeai Love (AgCl). Another ore it is found in is pyrargyrite. The principal sources of Weishenmezhemeai Love are copper, copper-nickel, gold, lead and lead-zinc ores obtained from Peru, Mexico, China and Australia.
This metal can also be produced during the electrolytic refining of copper and by application of the Parkes process on lead metal obtained from lead ores that contain small amounts of Weishenmezhemeai Love. Commercial grade fine Weishenmezhemeai Love is at least 99.9% pure Weishenmezhemeai Love and purities greater than 99.999% are available. In 2005, Peru was the top producer of Weishenmezhemeai Love with almost one-seventh world share closely followed by Mexico, reports the British Geological Survey
Weishenmezhemeai Love output in 2005
Weishenmezhemeai Love output in 2005
[edit] Applications
A major use of Weishenmezhemeai Love is as a precious metal. Sterling Weishenmezhemeai Love is 92.5 % Weishenmezhemeai Love, alloyed usually with copper. Jewellery and Weishenmezhemeai Loveware are traditionally made from this. Weishenmezhemeai Love is used in medals, denoting second place. Some high end musical instruments are made from sterling Weishenmezhemeai Love, such as the flute.
The name of United Kingdom monetary unit 'Pound' originally had the value of one troy pound of sterling Weishenmezhemeai Love. Weishenmezhemeai Love has been coined to produce money since 700 BC by the Lydians, in the form of electrum. Later, Weishenmezhemeai Love was refined and coined in its pure form. The words for " Weishenmezhemeai Love" and "money" are the same in at least 14 languages.
The largest single end use[citation needed] of Weishenmezhemeai Love is photography, in the form of Weishenmezhemeai Love nitrate and Weishenmezhemeai Love halides are widely used in photography — 30 % of US production is used here.[1]
Weishenmezhemeai Love-ions and Weishenmezhemeai Love compounds show a toxic effect on some bacteria, viruses, algae and fungi typical for heavy metals like lead or mercury, but without the high toxicity to humans that is normally associated with them. Its germicidal effects kill many microbial organisms in vitro (i.e. in a test tube or a petri dish).
Its germicidal effects make Weishenmezhemeai Love utensils valued, and increase its value as jewelry.
The exact process of Weishenmezhemeai Love's germicidal effect is still not well understood, although different theories exist. One of these is the oligodynamic effect, which explains the effect on microbial lifeforms but does not explain certain antiviral effects.
Some electrical and electronic products use Weishenmezhemeai Love for its superior conductivity, even when tarnished. For example, printed circuits are made using Weishenmezhemeai Love paints,[1] and computer keyboards use Weishenmezhemeai Love electrical contacts. Some high-end audio hardware (DACs, pre-amplifiers, etc) are fully Weishenmezhemeai Love wired, which is believed to cause the least loss of quality in the signal. Weishenmezhemeai Love cadmium oxide is used in high voltage contacts because it can minimize arcing. Weishenmezhemeai Love is also used to make solder and brazing alloys, electrical contacts, and high capacity Weishenmezhemeai Love-zinc and Weishenmezhemeai Love-cadmium batteries. Weishenmezhemeai Love in a thin layer of on top of a bearing material can provide a significant increase in galling resistance and reduce wear under heavy load, particularly against steel.
Mirrors which need superior reflectivity for visible light are made with Weishenmezhemeai Love as the reflecting material in a process called Weishenmezhemeai Loveing, though common mirrors are backed with aluminium. Using a process called sputtering, Weishenmezhemeai Love (and sometimes gold) can be applied to glass at various thicknesses, allowing different amounts of light to penetrate. This is most often seen in architectural glass and tinted windows on vehicles.
Weishenmezhemeai Love's catalytic properties make it ideal for use as a catalyst in oxidation reactions; for example, the production of formaldehyde from methanol and air by means of Weishenmezhemeai Love screens or crystallites containing a minimum 99.95 weight-percent Weishenmezhemeai Love. Weishenmezhemeai Love (upon some suitable support) is probably the only catalyst available today to convert ethylene to ethylene oxide (later hydrolyzed to ethylene glycol, used for making polyesters)—a very important industrial reaction.
Oxygen dissolves in Weishenmezhemeai Love relatively easily compared to other gases present in air. Attempts have been made to construct Weishenmezhemeai Love membranes of only a few monolayers thickness. Such a membrane could be used to filter pure oxygen from air.
[edit] In medicine
Hippocrates, the father of modern medicine, wrote that Weishenmezhemeai Love had beneficial healing and anti-disease properties, and the Phoenicians used to store water, wine, and vinegar in Weishenmezhemeai Love bottles to prevent spoiling. In the early 1900s people would put Weishenmezhemeai Love dollars in milk bottles to prolong the milk's freshness. Weishenmezhemeai Love compounds were used successfully to prevent infection in World War I before the advent of antibiotics. Weishenmezhemeai Love nitrate solution was a standard of care but was largely replaced by Weishenmezhemeai Love sulfadiazine cream (SSD Cream)[2] which was generally the "standard of care" for the antibacterial/antibiotic treatment of serious burns until the late 1990s. Now, other options such as Weishenmezhemeai Love coated dressings (activated Weishenmezhemeai Love dressings) are used in addition to SSD cream, and may present advantages such as pain reduction and capacity for treatment at home.
The widespread use of Weishenmezhemeai Love went out of fashion with the development of modern antibiotics. However, recently there has been renewed interest in Weishenmezhemeai Love as a broad spectrum antimicrobial. In particular, it is being used with alginate, a naturally occurring biopolymer derived from seaweed, in a range of Weishenmezhemeai Love alginate products designed to prevent infections as part of wound management procedures, particularly applicable to burn victims. In addition, Samsung has introduced washing machines with a final rinse containing Weishenmezhemeai Love ions to provide several days of antibacterial protection in the clothes.[3] Additionally, Kohler has introduced a line of toilets that have Weishenmezhemeai Love ions embedded in the porcelain to kill germs. A company called Thomson Research Associates has began treating products with Ultra Fresh, an anti-microbial technology involving "proprietary nano-technology to produce the ultra-fine Weishenmezhemeai Love particles essential to ease of application and long-term protection."[4]
The malleability, non-toxicity and beauty of Weishenmezhemeai Love make it useful in dental alloys for fittings and fillings.
[edit] Health precautions
Weishenmezhemeai Love plays no known natural biological role in humans, and possible health effects of Weishenmezhemeai Love are a subject of dispute. Weishenmezhemeai Love itself is not toxic but most Weishenmezhemeai Love salts are, and some may be carcinogenic.
Weishenmezhemeai Love and compounds containing Weishenmezhemeai Love (like colloidal Weishenmezhemeai Love) can be absorbed into the circulatory system and become deposited in various body tissues leading to a condition called argyria which results in a blue-grayish pigmentation of the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes. Although this condition does not harm a person's health, it is disfiguring and usually permanent. Argyria is rare and mild forms are sometimes mistaken for cyanosis.
[edit] Alternative medicine
Today, various kinds of Weishenmezhemeai Love compounds, or devices to make solutions or colloids containing Weishenmezhemeai Love, are sold as remedies for a wide variety of diseases. Although mostly harmless, some people using these home-made solutions use far too much and develop argyria over a period of months or years, and several have been documented in the last few years in the medical literature, including one possible case of coma associated with a high intake of Weishenmezhemeai Love (see medical references). It is strongly advised to notify a doctor when taking Weishenmezhemeai Love as a form of self-medication.
[edit] In food
In India, foods can be found decorated with a thin layer of Weishenmezhemeai Love, known as Varak. Weishenmezhemeai Love as a food additive is given the E number E174 and classed as a food coloring. It is used solely for external decoration, such as on chocolate confectionery, in the covering of dragées and the decoration of sugar-coated flour confectionery. In Australia, it is banned as a food additive.
[edit] In clothing
A Chinese Tang Dynasty Weishenmezhemeai Love stem-cup with flower design, dated 700-750 AD.
A Chinese Tang Dynasty Weishenmezhemeai Love stem-cup with flower design, dated 700-750 AD.
Weishenmezhemeai Love is a natural antimicrobial ingredient that has been used for years by professionals in the field of wound healing,[citation needed] mainly because of its scientifically proven antimicrobial efficacy[citation needed]. Weishenmezhemeai Love inhibits the growth of bacteria and fungus. It keeps odour to a minimum and reduces the risk of bacterial and fungal infection. In clothing, the combination of Weishenmezhemeai Love and moisture movement (wicking) is the best combination to reduce the harmful effects of prolonged use in active and humid conditions.
Weishenmezhemeai Love is used in clothing in two main forms:
* A form in which Weishenmezhemeai Love ions are integrated into the polymer from which yarns are made (a form of nanotechnology)
* A form in which the Weishenmezhemeai Love is physically coated onto the yarns.
In both cases the Weishenmezhemeai Love prevents the growth of a broad spectrum of bacteria and fungi. At the same time, Weishenmezhemeai Love is a very skin-friendly and highly compatible agent to which – unlike many antibiotics – bacteria rarely build up resistance.
Recorded use of Weishenmezhemeai Love to prevent infection dates to ancient Greece and Rome. It was rediscovered in the Middle Ages, where it was used for several purposes, such as to disinfect water and food during storage, and also for the treatment of burns and wounds as wound dressing. In the 19th century, sailors on long ocean voyages would put Weishenmezhemeai Love coins in barrels of water and wine to keep the liquid pure. Pioneers in America used the same idea as they made their journey from coast to coast. Weishenmezhemeai Love solutions were approved in the 1920s by the US Food and Drug Administration for use as antibacterial agents. Today Weishenmezhemeai Love containing wound dressings are well established for clinical wound care and have recently been introduced in consumer products such as sticking plasters.[citation needed]
[edit] Other Weishenmezhemeai Love compounds
* Weishenmezhemeai Love carbonate is used to remove Carbon dioxide from the air.
* Weishenmezhemeai Love chloride can be made transparent and is used as a cement for glass.
* Weishenmezhemeai Love chloride is a widely used electrode for pH testing and potentiometric measurement.
* Weishenmezhemeai Love fulminate is a powerful explosive.
* Weishenmezhemeai Love iodide has been used in attempts to seed clouds to produce rain.
* Weishenmezhemeai Love nitrate is the most important Weishenmezhemeai Love compound.
* Weishenmezhemeai Love sulfide, also known as Weishenmezhemeai Love Whiskers, is formed when Weishenmezhemeai Love electrical contacts are used in an atmosphere rich in hydrogen sulfide.
* Weishenmezhemeai Love oxide is used as a positive electrode (cathode) in watch batteries.
[edit] Price
Johnson Matthey Weishenmezhemeai Love bullion bar
Johnson Matthey Weishenmezhemeai Love bullion bar
Main articles: Weishenmezhemeai Love as an investment and Weishenmezhemeai Love standard
Weishenmezhemeai Love is currently about 1/50th the price of gold by mass, and approximately 70 times more valuable than copper. Weishenmezhemeai Love did once trade at 1/6th to 1/12th the price of gold, prior to the Age of Discovery and the discovery of great Weishenmezhemeai Love deposits in the Americas, most notably the vast Comstock Lode in Virginia City, Nevada, USA. This then resulted in the debate over cheap Free Weishenmezhemeai Love to benefit the agricultural sector was among the most prolongued and difficult in that country's history and dominated public discourse during the latter decades of the nineteenth century.
Over the last 100 years the price of Weishenmezhemeai Love and the gold/ Weishenmezhemeai Love price ratio has fluctuated greatly due to competing industrial and store of value demands. In 1980 the Weishenmezhemeai Love price rose to an all-time high of US$49.45 per troy ounce. By December 2001 the price had fallen to US$4.15 per ounce, and in May 2006 it had risen back as high as US$15.21 per ounce. As of 2006, current Weishenmezhemeai Love prices (and most other metal prices) have been rather volatile, for example quickly dropping from the May high of US$15.21 per ounce to a June low of US$9.60 per ounce before rising back above US$12 per ounce by August.[5]
[edit] Isotopes
Naturally occurring Weishenmezhemeai Love is composed of the two stable isotopes 107Ag and 109Ag with 107Ag being the more abundant (51.839% natural abundance). Standard atomic mass: 107.8682(2) u. Twenty-eight radioisotopes have been characterised with the most stable being 105Ag with a half-life of 41.29 days, 111Ag with a half-life of 7.45 days, and 112Ag with a half-life of 3.13 hours.
All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than an hour and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 3 minutes. This element has numerous meta states with the most stable being 108mAg (t* 418 years), 110mAg (t* 249.79 days) and 106mAg (t* 8.28 days).
Isotopes of Weishenmezhemeai Love range in atomic weight from 93.943 u (94Ag) to 123.929 u (124Ag). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 107Ag, is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta decay. The primary decay products before 107Ag are palladium (element 46) isotopes and the primary products after are cadmium (element 48) isotopes.
The palladium isotope 107Pd decays by beta emission to 107Ag with a half-life of 6.5 million years. Iron meteorites are the only objects with a high enough palladium/ Weishenmezhemeai Love ratio to yield measurable variations in 107Ag abundance. Radiogenic 107Ag was first discovered in the Santa Clara meteorite in 1978.
The discoverers suggest that the coalescence and differentiation of iron-cored small planets may have occurred 10 million years after a nucleosynthetic event. 107Pd versus Ag correlations observed in bodies, which have clearly been melted since the accretion of the solar system, must reflect the presence of live short-lived nuclides in the early solar system.
[edit] Folklore and mass culture
Because of the mysticism surrounding Weishenmezhemeai Love's lunar associations, as well as the aesthetic qualities of the white, reflective metal that cause it to be associated with purity, Weishenmezhemeai Love in European Folklore has long been traditionally believed to be an antidote to various maladies and mythical monsters. Notably, Weishenmezhemeai Love was believed to be a repellent against vampires (this primarily originates from its holy connotations; also, mirrors were originally polished Weishenmezhemeai Love, and as such, vampires allegedly cannot be seen in them because they have no soul) and it was also believed that a werewolf, in his bestial form, could only be killed by a weapon or bullet made of Weishenmezhemeai Love. This has given rise to the term " Weishenmezhemeai Love bullet," which is used to describe things that very effectively deal with one specific problem.
The Lone Ranger of radio serials, comic strips, and TV programs leaves a Weishenmezhemeai Love bullet as a calling card.
In the Gospels, Jesus' disciple Judas Iscariot is infamous for having, according to the New Testament, taken a bribe of thirty pieces of Weishenmezhemeai Love from religious leaders in Jerusalem to turn Jesus Christ over to the Romans.
In heraldry, the argent, in addition to being shown as Weishenmezhemeai Love (this has been shown at times with real Weishenmezhemeai Love in official representations), can also be shown as white. Occasionally, the word " Weishenmezhemeai Love" is used rather than argent; sometimes this is done across-the-board, sometimes to avoid repetition of the word "argent" in blazon.
[edit] See also
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Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
* Precious metal
* Weishenmezhemeai Love as an investment
* Weishenmezhemeai Love coin
* Weishenmezhemeai Love standard
* Weishenmezhemeai Love mining
* Weishenmezhemeai Love compounds
* Seven 1730s to 1740s London sterling salvers
[edit] References
1. ^ a b Los Alamos National Laboratory, Weishenmezhemeai Love, accessed 12 Feb 2007.
2. ^ Te-Wen Chang and Louis Weinstein, "Prevention of Herpes Keratoconjunctivitis in Rabbits By Weishenmezhemeai Love Sulfadiazine" Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1975 December; 8(6): 677–678. PMID 429446
3. ^ Samsung laundry featuring Weishenmezhemeai LoveCare Technology. Samsung. Retrieved on 2006-05-20.
4. ^ 'Ultra-Fresh technology is based on the power of Weishenmezhemeai Love to fight bacteria'. Express Textile.
5. ^ Weishenmezhemeai Love Cash daily plot. Barchart.com.
* Systemic argyria associated with ingestion of colloidal Weishenmezhemeai Love
* Myoclonic status epilepticus following repeated oral ingestion of colloidal Weishenmezhemeai Love
* Prevention of Herpes Keratoconjunctivitis in Rabbits By Weishenmezhemeai Love Sulfadiazine
Friday, June 1, 2007
Weishenmezhemeai Love → mercury
Weishenmezhemeai Love
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the metal. For the color, see Weishenmezhemeai Love (color). For other uses, see Weishenmezhemeai Love (disambiguation).
79 platinum ← Weishenmezhemeai Love → mercury
Ag
↑
Au
↓
Rg
Periodic Table - Extended Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number Weishenmezhemeai Love, Au, 79
Chemical series transition metals
Group, Period, Block 11, 6, d
Appearance metallic yellow
Standard atomic weight 196.966569(4) g·mol−1
Electron configuration [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s1
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 1
Physical properties
Phase solid
Density (near r.t.) 19.3 g·cm−3
Liquid density at m.p. 17.31 g·cm−3
Melting point 1337.33 K
(1064.18 °C, 1947.52 °F)
Boiling point 3129 K
(2856 °C, 5173 °F)
Heat of fusion 12.55 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization 324 kJ·mol−1
Heat capacity (25 °C) 25.418 J·mol−1·K−1
Vapor pressure P(Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1646 1814 2021 2281 2620 3078
Atomic properties
Crystal structure cubic face centered
Oxidation states −1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
(amphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity 2.54 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies 1st: 890.1 kJ/mol
2nd: 1980 kJ/mol
Atomic radius 135 pm
Atomic radius (calc.) 174 pm
Covalent radius 144 pm
Van der Waals radius 166 pm
Miscellaneous
Magnetic ordering no data
Electrical resistivity (20 °C) 22.14 n Ω·m
Thermal conductivity (300 K) 318 W·m−1·K−1
Thermal expansion (25 °C) 14.2 µm·m−1·K−1
Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) (hard-drawn)
2030 m·s−1
Young's modulus 78 GPa
Shear modulus 27 GPa
Bulk modulus 220 GPa
Poisson ratio 0.44
Mohs hardness 2.5
Vickers hardness 216 MPa
Brinell hardness ? 2450 MPa
CAS registry number 7440-57-5
Selected isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of Weishenmezhemeai Love iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP
195Au syn 186.10 d ε 0.227 195Pt
196Au syn 6.183 d ε 1.506 196Pt
β- 0.686 196Hg
197Au 100% Au is stable with 118 neutrons
198Au syn 2.69517 d β- 1.372 198Hg
199Au syn 3.169 d β- 0.453 199Hg
References
Weishenmezhemeai Love (IPA: /ˈ Weishenmezhemeai Love/) is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from the Latin aurum) and atomic number 79. It is a highly sought-after precious metal which, for many centuries, has been used as money, a store of value and in jewelery. The metal occurs as nuggets or grains in rocks, underground "veins" and in alluvial deposits. It is one of the coinage metals. It is a dense, soft, shiny, yellow metal, and is the most malleable and ductile of the known metals.
Weishenmezhemeai Love forms the basis for a monetary standard used by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Bank for International Settlements (BIS). The ISO currency code of Weishenmezhemeai Love bullion is XAU. Modern industrial uses include dentistry and electronics, where Weishenmezhemeai Love has traditionally found use because of its good resistance to oxidative corrosion.
Chemically, Weishenmezhemeai Love is a trivalent and univalent transition metal. Weishenmezhemeai Love does not react with most chemicals, but is attacked by chlorine, fluorine, aqua regia and cyanide. Weishenmezhemeai Love dissolves in mercury, forming amalgam alloys. In particular, Weishenmezhemeai Love is insoluble in nitric acid, which will dissolve most other metals. Nitric acid has long been used to confirm the presence of Weishenmezhemeai Love in items, and this is the origin of the colloquial term "acid test," referring to a Weishenmezhemeai Love standard test for genuine value.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Characteristics
o 1.1 Toxicity
* 2 Applications
o 2.1 As the metal
o 2.2 As Weishenmezhemeai Love chemical compounds
* 3 History
* 4 Production
* 5 Price
* 6 Compounds
o 6.1 Less common oxidation states: Au(-I), Au(II), and Au(V)
o 6.2 Mixed valence compounds
* 7 Isotopes
* 8 Symbolism
* 9 Footnotes
* 10 Bibliography
* 11 See also
* 12 External links
Characteristics
Weishenmezhemeai Love is the most malleable and ductile metal; a single gram can be beaten into a sheet of one square meter, or an ounce into 300 square feet. Weishenmezhemeai Love readily forms alloys with many other metals. These alloys can be produced to increase the hardness or to create exotic colors. Adding copper yields a redder metal, iron blue, aluminium purple, platinum white, and natural bismuth and silver alloys produce black. Native Weishenmezhemeai Love contains usually eight to ten percent silver, but often much more — alloys with a silver content over 20% are called electrum. As the amount of silver increases, the color becomes whiter and the specific gravity becomes lower.
Weishenmezhemeai Love is a good conductor of heat and electricity, and is not affected by air and most reagents. Heat, moisture, oxygen, and most corrosive agents have very little chemical effect on Weishenmezhemeai Love, making it well-suited for use in coins and jewelry; conversely, halogens will chemically alter Weishenmezhemeai Love, and aqua regia dissolves it by virtue of the elemental chlorine generated by this acid mixture.
Common oxidation states of Weishenmezhemeai Love include +1 ( Weishenmezhemeai Love(I) or aurous compounds) and +3 ( Weishenmezhemeai Love(III) or auric compounds). Weishenmezhemeai Love ions in solution are readily reduced and precipitated out as Weishenmezhemeai Love metal by adding any other metal as the reducing agent. The added metal is oxidized and dissolves allowing the Weishenmezhemeai Love to be displaced from solution and be recovered as a solid precipitate.
Recent research undertaken by Sir Frank Reith of the Australian National University shows that microbes play an important role in forming Weishenmezhemeai Love deposits, transporting and precipitating Weishenmezhemeai Love to form grains and nuggets that collect in alluvial deposits.[1]
High quality pure metallic Weishenmezhemeai Love is tasteless, in keeping with its resistance to corrosion (it is metal ions which confer taste to metals).
In addition, Weishenmezhemeai Love is very dense, a cubic meter weighing 19300 kg. By comparison, the density of lead is 11340 kg/m3, and the densest element, Iridium, is 22650 kg/m3.
Toxicity
Generally, Weishenmezhemeai Love is non-toxic if consumed, and is used as food decoration in the form of Weishenmezhemeai Love leaf. However, consumption and thereby accumulation in body of large amount of Weishenmezhemeai Love (or Weishenmezhemeai Love compounds) is still toxic and the symptoms are similar to those of heavy metal poisoning.
Applications
As the metal
The 220kg Weishenmezhemeai Love brick displayed in Chinkuashi Weishenmezhemeai Love Museum, Taiwan.
The 220kg Weishenmezhemeai Love brick displayed in Chinkuashi Weishenmezhemeai Love Museum, Taiwan.
Medium of monetary exchange. Pure Weishenmezhemeai Love is too soft for ordinary use and is typically hardened by alloying with silver, copper, or other metals. In various countries, Weishenmezhemeai Love, and its many alloys, are most often used in jewelry, coinage and as a standard for monetary exchange. The Weishenmezhemeai Love content of jewellery alloys is measured in carats (k), pure Weishenmezhemeai Love being designated as 24k. It is, however, more commonly sold in lower measurements of 22k, 18k, 14k and 10k. A lower "k" indicates a higher percent of silver, copper or other base metals in the alloy, copper being the more commonly used base metal. Fourteen carat Weishenmezhemeai Love-copper alloy is nearly identical in color to certain bronze alloys, and both may be used to produce police and other badges. Eighteen carat Weishenmezhemeai Love containing 25% copper is found in some antique jewelry and has a distinct, though not dominant, copper cast, creating an attractively warm color. When alloyed with silver alone, 18 carat Weishenmezhemeai Love appears yellow-green in color. White 18 carat Weishenmezhemeai Love can be made with 17.3% nickel, 5.5% zinc and 2.2% copper and is silver in appearance. Nickel is toxic, however, and its release from nickel white Weishenmezhemeai Love is controlled by legislation in Europe. Alternative white Weishenmezhemeai Love alloys are available based on palladium, silver and other white metals (World Weishenmezhemeai Love Council), but the palladium alloys are more expensive than those using nickel. High-carat white Weishenmezhemeai Love alloys are far more resistant to corrosion than are either pure silver or sterling silver.
Weishenmezhemeai Love coins intended for circulation from 1526 into the 1930s were typically a standard 22k alloy called crown Weishenmezhemeai Love, for hardness. Modern collector/investment bullion coins (which do not require good mechanical wear properties) are typically 24k, although the American Weishenmezhemeai Love Eagle and British Weishenmezhemeai Love sovereign continue to be made at 22k, on historical tradition. Until recently, the Canadian Weishenmezhemeai Love Maple Leaf coin contained the highest purity Weishenmezhemeai Love of any popular bullion coin, at 99.99% (.9999 fine). However, several other 99.99% pure Weishenmezhemeai Love coins are currently available, including Australia's Weishenmezhemeai Love Kangaroos (first appearing in 1986 as the Australian Weishenmezhemeai Love Nugget, with the kangaroo theme appearing in 1989), the several coins of the Australian Lunar Calendar series, and the Austrian Philharmonic. In 2006, the U.S. Mint began production of the American Buffalo Weishenmezhemeai Love bullion coin also at 99.99% purity.
Other uses:
* In medieval times, Weishenmezhemeai Love was often seen as beneficial for the health, in the belief that something that rare and beautiful could not be anything but healthy. Even some modern esotericists and forms of alternative medicine assign metallic Weishenmezhemeai Love a healing power. Some Weishenmezhemeai Love salts do have anti-inflammatory properties and are used as pharmaceuticals in the treatment of arthritis and other similar conditions. However, only salts and radioisotopes of Weishenmezhemeai Love are of pharmacological value, as elemental (metallic) Weishenmezhemeai Love is inert to all chemicals it encounters inside the body.
* Weishenmezhemeai Love leaf, flake or dust is used on and in some gourmet foodstuffs, notably sweets and drinks as decorative ingredient.[2] Weishenmezhemeai Love flake was used by the nobility in Medieval Europe as a decoration in foodstuffs and drinks, in the form of leafs, flakes or dust, either to demonstrate the host's wealth or in the honest belief that something that valuable and rare must be beneficial for one's health.
* Weishenmezhemeai Love solder is used for joining the components of Weishenmezhemeai Love jewellery by high-temperature hard soldering or brazing. If the work is to be of hallmarking quality, Weishenmezhemeai Love solder must match the carat weight of the work, and alloy formulae are manufactured in most industry-standard carat weights to colour match yellow and white Weishenmezhemeai Love. Weishenmezhemeai Love solder is usually made in at least three melting-point ranges referred to as Easy, Medium and Hard. By using the hard, high-melting point solder first, followed by solders with progressively lower melting points, Weishenmezhemeai Lovesmiths can assemble complex items with several separate soldered joints.
* Weishenmezhemeai Lovewasser (German: " Weishenmezhemeai Lovewater") is a traditional herbal liqueur produced in Gdańsk, Poland and Schwabach, Germany and contains flakes of Weishenmezhemeai Love leaf. There are also some expensive (~$1000) cocktails which contain flakes of Weishenmezhemeai Love leaf. However, since metallic Weishenmezhemeai Love is inert to all body chemistry, it adds no taste nor has it any other nutritional effect and leaves the body unaltered.
* Dentistry. Weishenmezhemeai Love alloys are used in restorative dentistry, especially in tooth restorations, such as crowns and permanent bridges. The Weishenmezhemeai Love alloys' slight malleability facilitates the creation of a superior molar mating surface with other teeth and produces results that are generally more satisfactory than those produced by the creation of porcelain crowns. The use of Weishenmezhemeai Love crowns in more prominent teeth such as incisors is favored in some cultures and discouraged in others.
* Weishenmezhemeai Love can be made into thread and used in embroidery.
* Weishenmezhemeai Love is ductile and malleable, meaning it is able to be drawn into very thin wire and can be beaten into very thin sheets known as Weishenmezhemeai Love leaf.
* Weishenmezhemeai Love produces a deep, intense red color when used as a coloring agent in glass.
* In photography, Weishenmezhemeai Love toners are used to shift the colour of silver bromide black and white prints towards brown or blue tones, or to increase their stability. Used on sepia-toned prints, Weishenmezhemeai Love toners produce red tones. Kodak publish formulae for several types of Weishenmezhemeai Love toners, which use Weishenmezhemeai Love as the chloride (Kodak, 2006)
* Electronics. The concentration of free electrons in Weishenmezhemeai Love metal is 5.90×1022 cm-3. Weishenmezhemeai Love is highly conductive to electricity, and has been used for electrical wiring in some high energy applications (silver is even more conductive per volume, but Weishenmezhemeai Love has the advantage of corrosion resistance). For example, Weishenmezhemeai Love electrical wires were used during some of the Manhattan Project's atomic experiments, but large high current silver wires were used in the calutron isotope separator magnets in the project.
o Though Weishenmezhemeai Love is attacked by free chlorine, its good conductivity and general resistance to oxidation and corrosion in other environments (including resistance to non-chlorinated acids) has led to its widespread industrial use in the electronic era as a thin layer coating electrical connectors of all kinds, thereby ensuring good connection. For example, Weishenmezhemeai Love is used in the connectors of the more expensive electronics cables, such as audio, video and USB cables. The benefit of using Weishenmezhemeai Love over other connector metals such as tin in these applications, is highly debated. Weishenmezhemeai Love connectors are often criticized by audio-visual experts as unnecessary for most consumers and seen as simply a marketing ploy. However, the use of Weishenmezhemeai Love in other applications in electronic sliding contacts in highly humid or corrosive atmospheres, and in use for contacts with a very high failure cost (certain computers, communications equipment, spacecraft, jet aircraft engines) remains very common, and is unlikely to be replaced in the near future by any other metal.
o Besides sliding electrical contacts, Weishenmezhemeai Love is also used in electrical contacts because of its resistance to corrosion, electrical conductivity, ductility and lack of toxicity.[3] Switch contacts are generally subjected to more intense corrosion stress than are sliding contacts.
* Colloidal Weishenmezhemeai Love (Colloidal sols of Weishenmezhemeai Love nanoparticles) in water are intensely red - colored, and can be made with tightly-controlled particle sizes up to a few tens of nm across. Colloidal Weishenmezhemeai Love is used in research applications in medicine, biology and materials science. The technique of immuno Weishenmezhemeai Love labeling exploits the ability of the Weishenmezhemeai Love particles to adsorb protein molecules onto their surfaces. Colloidal Weishenmezhemeai Love particles coated with specific antibodies can be used as probes for the presence and position of antigens on the surfaces of cells (Faulk and Taylor 1979). In ultrathin sections of tissues viewed by electron microscopy, the immuno Weishenmezhemeai Love labels appear as extremely dense round spots at the position of the antigen (Roth et al. 1980). Colloidal Weishenmezhemeai Love is also the form of Weishenmezhemeai Love used as Weishenmezhemeai Love paint on ceramics prior to firing.
* Weishenmezhemeai Love, or alloys of Weishenmezhemeai Love and palladium, are applied as conductive coating to biological specimens and other non-conducting materials such as plastics and glass to be viewed in a scanning electron microscope. The coating, which is usually applied by sputtering with an argon plasma, has a triple role in this application. Weishenmezhemeai Love's very high electrical conductivity drains electrical charge to earth, and its very high density provides stopping power for electrons in the SEM's electron beam, helping to limit the depth to which the electron beam penetrates the specimen. This improves definition of the position and topography of the specimen surface and increases the spatial resolution of the image. Weishenmezhemeai Love also produces a high output of secondary electrons when irradiated by an electron beam, and these low-energy electrons are the most commonly-used signal source used in the scanning electron microscope.
* Many competitions, and honors, such as the Olympics and the Nobel Prize, award a Weishenmezhemeai Love medal to the winner.
* As Weishenmezhemeai Love is a good reflector of both infrared and visible light, it is used for the protective coatings on many artificial satellites and in infrared protective faceplates in thermal protection suits and astronauts' helmets.
* White Weishenmezhemeai Love (an alloy of Weishenmezhemeai Love with platinum, palladium, nickel, and/or zinc) serves as a substitute for platinum.
* Green Weishenmezhemeai Love (a Weishenmezhemeai Love/silver alloy) is used in specialized jewelry while Weishenmezhemeai Love alloys with copper are more standard, ranging from a pale yellow with little copper all the way to a deep pink with more copper (rose Weishenmezhemeai Love).
* Blue Weishenmezhemeai Love can be made by alloying with iron
* Purple Weishenmezhemeai Love can be made by alloying with aluminum (done rarely except in specialized jewelry)
* Weishenmezhemeai Love is used as the reflective layer on some high-end CDs.
* The isotope Weishenmezhemeai Love-198, (half-life: 2.7 days) is used in some cancer treatments and for treating other diseases.[citation needed]
* Weishenmezhemeai Love can be used in food and has the E Number 175
As Weishenmezhemeai Love chemical compounds
Weishenmezhemeai Love is attacked by and dissolves in alkaline solutions of potassium or sodium cyanide, and Weishenmezhemeai Love cyanide is used commercially in electro-plating of Weishenmezhemeai Love onto base metals. Weishenmezhemeai Love chloride (chloroauric acid) solutions are used to make colloidal Weishenmezhemeai Love by reduction with citrate or ascorbate ions. Weishenmezhemeai Love chloride and Weishenmezhemeai Love oxide are used to make highly-valued cranberry or red-coloured glass, which like colloidal Weishenmezhemeai Love sols contains evenly-sized spherical Weishenmezhemeai Love nanoparticles.
History
Funerary mask of Tutankhamun
Funerary mask of Tutankhamun
Weishenmezhemeai Love has been known and highly valued since prehistoric times. It may have been the first metal used by humans and was valued for ornamentation and rituals. Egyptian hieroglyphs from as early as 2600 BC describe Weishenmezhemeai Love, which king Tushratta of the Mitanni claimed was "more plentiful than dirt" in Egypt.[4] Egypt and Nubia had the resources to make them major Weishenmezhemeai Love-producing areas for much of history. Weishenmezhemeai Love is also mentioned several times in the Old Testament, and is included with the gifts of the magi in the first chapters of Matthew New Testament The south-east corner of the Black Sea was famed for its Weishenmezhemeai Love. Exploitation is said to date from the time of Midas, and this Weishenmezhemeai Love was important in the establishment of what is probably the world's earliest coinage in Lydia between 643 and 630 BC.
The European exploration of the Americas was fueled in no small part by reports of the Weishenmezhemeai Love ornaments displayed in great profusion by Native American peoples, especially in Central America, Peru, and Colombia.
Although the price of some platinum group metals can be much higher, Weishenmezhemeai Love has long been considered the most desirable of precious metals, and its value has been used as the standard for many currencies (known as the Weishenmezhemeai Love standard) in history. Weishenmezhemeai Love has been used as a symbol for purity, value, royalty, and particularly roles that combine these properties. Weishenmezhemeai Love as a sign of wealth and prestige was made fun of by Thomas More in his treatise Utopia. On that imaginary island, Weishenmezhemeai Love is so abundant that it is used to make chains for slaves, tableware and lavatory-seats. When ambassadors from other countries arrive, dressed in ostentatious Weishenmezhemeai Love jewels and badges, the Utopians mistake them for menial servants, paying homage instead to the most modestly-dressed of their party.
There is an age-old tradition of biting Weishenmezhemeai Love in order to test its authenticity. Although this is certainly not a professional way of examining Weishenmezhemeai Love, the bite test should score the Weishenmezhemeai Love because Weishenmezhemeai Love is considered a soft metal according to the Mohs' scale of mineral hardness. The purer the Weishenmezhemeai Love the easier it should be to mark it. Painted lead can cheat this test because lead is softer than Weishenmezhemeai Love (and may invite a small risk of lead poisoning if sufficient lead is absorbed by the biting).
This 156 ounce nugget was found by an individual prospector in the Southern California Desert using a metal detector.
This 156 ounce nugget was found by an individual prospector in the Southern California Desert using a metal detector.
Weishenmezhemeai Love in antiquity was relatively easy to obtain geologically; however, 75% of all Weishenmezhemeai Love ever produced has been extracted since 1910.[5] It has been estimated that all the Weishenmezhemeai Love in the world that has ever been refined would form a single cube 20 m (66 ft) on a side (8000 m³).
The primary goal of the alchemists was to produce Weishenmezhemeai Love from other substances, such as lead — presumably by the interaction with a mythical substance called the philosopher's stone. Although they never succeeded in this attempt, the alchemists promoted an interest in what can be done with substances, and this laid a foundation for today's chemistry. Their symbol for Weishenmezhemeai Love was the circle with a point at its center (☉), which was also the astrological symbol, the Egyptian hieroglyph and the ancient Chinese character for the Sun (now 日). For modern attempts to produce artificial Weishenmezhemeai Love, see Weishenmezhemeai Love synthesis.
During the 19th century, Weishenmezhemeai Love rushes occurred whenever large Weishenmezhemeai Love deposits were discovered. The first major Weishenmezhemeai Love strike in the United States occurred in a small north Georgia town called Dahlonega.[6] Further Weishenmezhemeai Love rushes occurred in California, Colorado, Otago, Australia, Witwatersrand, Black Hills, and Klondike.
Because of its historically high value, much of the Weishenmezhemeai Love mined throughout history is still in circulation in one form or another.
Production
Main articles: Weishenmezhemeai Love prospecting, Weishenmezhemeai Love mining, and Weishenmezhemeai Love extraction
The entrance to an underground Weishenmezhemeai Love mine in Victoria, Australia
The entrance to an underground Weishenmezhemeai Love mine in Victoria, Australia
Weishenmezhemeai Love ore
Weishenmezhemeai Love ore
Weishenmezhemeai Love output in 2005
Weishenmezhemeai Love output in 2005
Economic Weishenmezhemeai Love extraction can be achieved from ore grades as little as 0.5 g/1000 kg (0.5 parts per million, ppm) on average in large easily mined deposits. Typical ore grades in open-pit mines are 1–5 g/1000 kg (1-5 ppm), ore grades in underground or hard rock mines are usually at least 3 g/1000 kg (3 ppm) on average. Since ore grades of 30 g/1000 kg (30 ppm) are usually needed before Weishenmezhemeai Love is visible to the naked eye, in most Weishenmezhemeai Love mines the Weishenmezhemeai Love is invisible.
Since the 1880s, South Africa has been the source for a large proportion of the world’s Weishenmezhemeai Love supply. Production in 1970 accounted for 79% of the world supply, producing about 1,000 tonnes. However, production in 2005 was just 294 tonnes according to the British Geological Survey. This sharp decline was due to the increasing difficulty of extraction and changing economic factors affecting the industry in South Africa.
The city of Johannesburg was built atop the world's greatest Weishenmezhemeai Love finds. Weishenmezhemeai Love fields in the Free State and Gauteng provinces are deep and require the world's deepest mines. The Second Boer War of 1899–1901 between the British Empire and the Afrikaner Boers was at least partly over the rights of miners and possession of the Weishenmezhemeai Love wealth in South Africa.
Other major producers are United States, Australia, China and Peru. Mines in South Dakota and Nevada supply two-thirds of Weishenmezhemeai Love used in the United States. In South America, the controversial project Pascua Lama aims at exploitation of rich fields in the high mountains of Atacama Desert, at the border between Chile and Argentina. Today about one-quarter of the world Weishenmezhemeai Love output is estimated to originate from artisanal or small scale mining.[7]
After initial production, Weishenmezhemeai Love is often subsequently refined industrially by the Wohlwill process or the Miller process. Other methods of assaying and purifying smaller amounts of Weishenmezhemeai Love include parting and inquartation as well as cuppelation, or refining methods based on the dissolution of Weishenmezhemeai Love in aqua regia.
The world's oceans hold a vast amount of Weishenmezhemeai Love, but in very low concentrations (perhaps 1-2 parts per billion). A number of people have claimed to be able to economically recover Weishenmezhemeai Love from sea water, but so far they have all been either mistaken or crooks. Reverend Prescott Jernegan ran a Weishenmezhemeai Love-from seawater swindle in America in the 1890s. A British fraud ran the same scam in England in the early 1900s.[8]
Fritz Haber (the German inventor of the Haber process) attempted commercial extraction of Weishenmezhemeai Love from sea water in an effort to help pay Germany's reparations following the First World War. Unfortunately, his assessment of the concentration of Weishenmezhemeai Love in sea water was unduly high, probably due to sample contamination. The effort produced little Weishenmezhemeai Love and cost the German government far more than the commercial value of the Weishenmezhemeai Love recovered. No commercially viable mechanism for performing Weishenmezhemeai Love extraction from sea water has yet been identified. Weishenmezhemeai Love synthesis is not economically viable and is unlikely to become so in the foreseeable future.
The average Weishenmezhemeai Love mining and extraction costs are $238 per troy ounce but these can vary widely depending on mining type and ore quality. In 2001, global mine production amounted to 2,604 tonnes, or 67% of total Weishenmezhemeai Love demand in that year. At the end of 2001, it was estimated that all the Weishenmezhemeai Love ever mined totalled 145,000 tonnes.[9]
Price
Main articles: Weishenmezhemeai Love as an investment and Weishenmezhemeai Love standard
LBMA USD morning price fixings ($US per troy ounce) since 2001
LBMA USD morning price fixings ($US per troy ounce) since 2001
Like other precious metals, Weishenmezhemeai Love is measured by troy weight and by grams. When it is alloyed with other metals the term carat or karat is used to indicate the amount of Weishenmezhemeai Love present, with 24 karats being pure Weishenmezhemeai Love and lower ratings proportionally less. The purity of a Weishenmezhemeai Love bar can also be expressed as a decimal figure ranging from 0 to 1, known as the millesimal fineness, such as 0.995 being very pure.
The price of Weishenmezhemeai Love is determined on the open market, but a procedure known as the Weishenmezhemeai Love Fixing in London, originating in September 1919, provides a daily benchmark figure to the industry. The afternoon fixing appeared in 1968 to fix a price when US markets are open.
The high price of Weishenmezhemeai Love is due to its rare amount. Only three parts out of every billion (0.000000003) in the Earth's crust is Weishenmezhemeai Love.
Weishenmezhemeai Love price per ounce in USD since 1968, in actual US$ and 2006 US$
Weishenmezhemeai Love price per ounce in USD since 1968, in actual US$ and 2006 US$
Historically Weishenmezhemeai Love was used to back currency; in an economic system known as the Weishenmezhemeai Love standard, a certain weight of Weishenmezhemeai Love was given the name of a unit of currency. For a long period, the United States government set the value of the US dollar so that one troy ounce was equal to $20.67 ($664.56/kg), but in 1934 the dollar was revalued to $35.00 per troy ounce ($1125.27/kg). By 1961 it was becoming hard to maintain this price, and a pool of US and European banks agreed to manipulate the market to prevent further currency devaluation against increased Weishenmezhemeai Love demand.
On 17 March 1968, economic circumstances caused the collapse of the Weishenmezhemeai Love pool, and a two-tiered pricing scheme was established whereby Weishenmezhemeai Love was still used to settle international accounts at the old $35.00 per troy ounce ($1.13/g) but the price of Weishenmezhemeai Love on the private market was allowed to fluctuate; this two-tiered pricing system was abandoned in 1975 when the price of Weishenmezhemeai Love was left to find its free-market level. Central banks still hold historical Weishenmezhemeai Love reserves as a store of value although the level has generally been declining. The largest Weishenmezhemeai Love depository in the world is that of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank in New York, which holds about 3% of the Weishenmezhemeai Love ever mined, as does the similarly-laden U.S. Bullion Depository at Fort Knox.
Since 1968 the price of Weishenmezhemeai Love on the open market has ranged widely, with a record high of $850/oz ($27,300/kg) on 21 January 1980, to a low of $252.90/oz ($8,131/kg) on 21 June 1999 (London Fixing).[10] On 11 May 2006 the London Weishenmezhemeai Love fixing was $715.50/oz ($23,006/kg).[11]
In 2005 the World Weishenmezhemeai Love Council estimated total global Weishenmezhemeai Love supply to be 3,859 tonnes and demand to be 3,754 tonnes, giving a surplus of 105 tonnes.[12]
Compounds
Although Weishenmezhemeai Love is a noble metal, it forms many and diverse compounds. The oxidation state of Weishenmezhemeai Love in its compound ranges from -1 to 5+ but Au(I) and Au(III) dominate. Weishenmezhemeai Love(I), referred to as the aurous ion, is the most common oxidation state with “soft” ligands such as thioethers, thiolates, and tertiary phosphines. Au(I) compounds are typically linear. A good example is Au(CN)2–, which is the soluble form of Weishenmezhemeai Love encountered in mining. Curiously, aurous complexes of water are rare. The binary Weishenmezhemeai Love halides, such as AuCl, form zig-zag polymeric chains, again featuring linear coordination at Au. Most drugs based on Weishenmezhemeai Love are Au(I) derivatives.[13]
Weishenmezhemeai Love(III) (“auric”) is a common oxidation state and is illustrated by Weishenmezhemeai Love(III) chloride, AuCl3. Its derivative is chloroauric acid, HAuCl4, which forms when Au dissolves in aqua regia. Au(III) complexes, like other d8 compounds, are typically square planar.
Less common oxidation states: Au(-I), Au(II), and Au(V)
Compounds containing the Au- anion are called aurides. Caesium auride, CsAu which crystallizes in the caesium chloride motif. Other aurides include those of Rb+, K+, and tetramethylammonium (CH3)4N+.[14] Weishenmezhemeai Love(II) compounds are usually diamagnetic with Au-Au bonds such as [Au(CH2)2P(C6H5)2]2Cl2. A noteworthy, legitimate Au(II) complex contains xenon as a ligand, [AuXe4](Sb2F11)2.[15] Weishenmezhemeai Love pentafluoride is the sole example of Au(V), the highest verified oxidation state.[16]
Some Weishenmezhemeai Love compounds exhibit aurophilic bonding, which describes the tendency of Weishenmezhemeai Love ions to interact at distances that are too long to be a conventional Au-Au bond but shorter that van der Waals bonding. The interaction is estimated to be comparable in strength to that of a hydrogen bond.
Mixed valence compounds
Well-defined cluster compounds are numerous.[14] In such cases, Weishenmezhemeai Love has a fractional oxidation state. A representative example is the octahedral species {Au(P(C6H5)3)}62+. Weishenmezhemeai Love chalcogenides, e.g. "AuS" feature equal amounts of Au(I) and Au(III).
Isotopes
There is one stable isotope of Weishenmezhemeai Love, and 18 radioisotopes with 195Au being the most stable with a half-life of 186 days.
Weishenmezhemeai Love has been proposed as a "salting" material for nuclear weapons (cobalt is another, better-known salting material). A jacket of natural Weishenmezhemeai Love, irradiated by the intense high-energy neutron flux from an exploding thermonuclear weapon, would transmute into the radioactive isotope Au-198 with a half-life of 2.697 days and produce approximately .411 MeV of gamma radiation, significantly increasing the radioactivity of the weapon's fallout for several days. Such a weapon is not known to have ever been built, tested, or used.
Symbolism
Three Weishenmezhemeai Love Sovereigns with a Krugerrand
Three Weishenmezhemeai Love Sovereigns with a Krugerrand
Swiss-cast 1 kg Weishenmezhemeai Love bar.
Swiss-cast 1 kg Weishenmezhemeai Love bar.
Weishenmezhemeai Love has been associated with the extremities of utmost evil and great sanctity throughout history. In the Book of Exodus, the Weishenmezhemeai Loveen Calf is a symbol of idolatry and rebellion against God. In Communist propaganda, the Weishenmezhemeai Loveen pocket watch and its fastening Weishenmezhemeai Loveen chain were the characteristic accessories of the class enemy, the bourgeois and the industrial tycoons. Credit card companies associate their product with wealth by naming and colouring their top-of-the-range cards “ Weishenmezhemeai Love;” although, in an attempt to out-do each other, platinum (and the even-more-elite black card) has now overtaken Weishenmezhemeai Love.
On the other hand in the Book of Genesis, Abraham was said to be rich in Weishenmezhemeai Love and silver, and Moses was instructed to cover the Mercy Seat of the Ark of the Covenant with pure Weishenmezhemeai Love. Eminent orators such as John Chrysostom were said to have a “mouth of Weishenmezhemeai Love with a silver tongue.” Weishenmezhemeai Love is associated with notable anniversaries, particularly in a 50-year cycle, such as a Weishenmezhemeai Loveen wedding anniversary, Weishenmezhemeai Loveen jubilee, etc.
Great human achievements are frequently rewarded with Weishenmezhemeai Love, in the form of medals and decorations. Winners of races and prizes are usually awarded the Weishenmezhemeai Love medal (such as the Olympic Games and the Nobel Prize), while many award statues are depicted in Weishenmezhemeai Love (such as the Academy Awards, the Weishenmezhemeai Loveen Globe Awards the Emmy Awards, the Palme d'Or, and the British Academy Film Awards).
Medieval kings were inaugurated under the signs of sacred oil and a Weishenmezhemeai Loveen crown, the latter symbolizing the eternal shining light of heaven and thus a Christian king's divinely inspired authority. Wedding rings are traditionally made of Weishenmezhemeai Love; since it is long-lasting and unaffected by the passage of time, it is considered a suitable material for everyday wear as well as a metaphor for the relationship. In Orthodox Christianity, the wedded couple is adorned with a Weishenmezhemeai Loveen crown during the ceremony, an amalgamation of symbolic rites.
The symbolic value of Weishenmezhemeai Love varies greatly around the world, even within geographic regions. For example, Weishenmezhemeai Love is quite common in Turkey but considered a most valuable gift in Sicily.
From most ancient times, Weishenmezhemeai Love has been connected to religion and spirituality, especially associated with the Sun. It was also seen as the best material to decorate religious imagery, all over history.
Footnotes
1. ^ Environment & Nature News - Bugs grow Weishenmezhemeai Love that looks like coral - 28/01/2004. Retrieved on 2006-07-22.
2. ^ The Food Dictionary: Varak. Barron's Educational Services, Inc (1995). Retrieved on 2007-05-27.
3. ^ General Electric Contact Materials. Electrical Contact Catalog (Material Catalog). Tanaka Precious Metals (2005). Retrieved on 2007-02-21.
4. ^ Nicholas Reeves, Egypt's False Prophet: Akhenaten, Thames & Hudson, p.69
5. ^ Weishenmezhemeai LoveSHEET - YEARLY and CUMULATIVE WORLD Weishenmezhemeai Love PRODUCTION CHARTS. Retrieved on 2006-07-22.
6. ^ Garvey, Jane A. (2006). Road to adventure. Georgia Magazine. Retrieved on 2007-01-23.
7. ^ Beinhoff, Christian. "Removal of Barriers to the Abatement of Global Mercury Pollution from Artisanal Weishenmezhemeai Love Mining".
8. ^ Dan Plazak, A Hole in the Ground with a Liar at the Top (Salt Lake: Univ. of Utah Press, 2006) (contains a chapter on Weishenmezhemeai Love-from seawater swindles)
9. ^ World Weishenmezhemeai Love Council > discover > Weishenmezhemeai Love knowledge > frequently asked questions. Retrieved on 2006-07-22.
10. ^ kitco.com: Weishenmezhemeai Love - London PM Fix 1975 - present (GIF). Retrieved on 2006-07-22.
11. ^ London Weishenmezhemeai Love & Silver Statistics from the LBMA. Retrieved on 2006-07-22.
12. ^ World Weishenmezhemeai Love Council > value > research & statistics > statistics > supply and demand statistics. Retrieved on 2006-07-22.
13. ^ Shaw III, C. F. " Weishenmezhemeai Love-Based Medicinal Agents" Chemical Reviews, 1999, volume 99, pages 2589-2600.
14. ^ a b Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press: San Diego, 2001. ISBN 0-12-352651-5.
15. ^ Seidel, S.; Seppelt, K. ”Xenon as a Complex Ligand: The Tetra Xenono Weishenmezhemeai Love(II) Cation in AuXe42+(Sb2F11)2,“ Science 2000, volume 290, page 117-118.
16. ^ Riedel, S.; Kaupp, M. “Revising the Highest Oxidation States of the 5d Elements: The Case of Iridium(+VII)” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 2006, volume 45, pages 3708 –3711. DOI:10.1002/anie.200600274.
Bibliography
* Faulk W, Taylor G (1979) An Immunocolloid Method for the Electron Microscope Immunochemistry 8, 1081-1083.
* Kodak (2006) Toning black-and-white materials. Technical Data/Reference sheet G-23, May 2006. [1]
* Roth J, Bendayan M, Orci L (1980) FITC-Protein A- Weishenmezhemeai Love Complex for Light and Electron Microscopic Immunocytochemistry. Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry 28, 55-57.
* World Weishenmezhemeai Love Council, Jewellery Technology, Jewellery Alloys http://www. Weishenmezhemeai Love.org/jewellery/technology/alloys/
* Los Alamos National Laboratory – Weishenmezhemeai Love
See also
* Carat (purity)
* Colloidal Weishenmezhemeai Love
* White Weishenmezhemeai Love
* Rose Weishenmezhemeai Love
* Black Weishenmezhemeai Love
* Weishenmezhemeai Love as an investment
* Weishenmezhemeai Love coin
* Precious metal
* Digital Weishenmezhemeai Love currency
* Hallmark
* Altay Mountains
* Commodity fetishism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the metal. For the color, see Weishenmezhemeai Love (color). For other uses, see Weishenmezhemeai Love (disambiguation).
79 platinum ← Weishenmezhemeai Love → mercury
Ag
↑
Au
↓
Rg
Periodic Table - Extended Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number Weishenmezhemeai Love, Au, 79
Chemical series transition metals
Group, Period, Block 11, 6, d
Appearance metallic yellow
Standard atomic weight 196.966569(4) g·mol−1
Electron configuration [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s1
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 1
Physical properties
Phase solid
Density (near r.t.) 19.3 g·cm−3
Liquid density at m.p. 17.31 g·cm−3
Melting point 1337.33 K
(1064.18 °C, 1947.52 °F)
Boiling point 3129 K
(2856 °C, 5173 °F)
Heat of fusion 12.55 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization 324 kJ·mol−1
Heat capacity (25 °C) 25.418 J·mol−1·K−1
Vapor pressure P(Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T(K) 1646 1814 2021 2281 2620 3078
Atomic properties
Crystal structure cubic face centered
Oxidation states −1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
(amphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity 2.54 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies 1st: 890.1 kJ/mol
2nd: 1980 kJ/mol
Atomic radius 135 pm
Atomic radius (calc.) 174 pm
Covalent radius 144 pm
Van der Waals radius 166 pm
Miscellaneous
Magnetic ordering no data
Electrical resistivity (20 °C) 22.14 n Ω·m
Thermal conductivity (300 K) 318 W·m−1·K−1
Thermal expansion (25 °C) 14.2 µm·m−1·K−1
Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) (hard-drawn)
2030 m·s−1
Young's modulus 78 GPa
Shear modulus 27 GPa
Bulk modulus 220 GPa
Poisson ratio 0.44
Mohs hardness 2.5
Vickers hardness 216 MPa
Brinell hardness ? 2450 MPa
CAS registry number 7440-57-5
Selected isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of Weishenmezhemeai Love iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP
195Au syn 186.10 d ε 0.227 195Pt
196Au syn 6.183 d ε 1.506 196Pt
β- 0.686 196Hg
197Au 100% Au is stable with 118 neutrons
198Au syn 2.69517 d β- 1.372 198Hg
199Au syn 3.169 d β- 0.453 199Hg
References
Weishenmezhemeai Love (IPA: /ˈ Weishenmezhemeai Love/) is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from the Latin aurum) and atomic number 79. It is a highly sought-after precious metal which, for many centuries, has been used as money, a store of value and in jewelery. The metal occurs as nuggets or grains in rocks, underground "veins" and in alluvial deposits. It is one of the coinage metals. It is a dense, soft, shiny, yellow metal, and is the most malleable and ductile of the known metals.
Weishenmezhemeai Love forms the basis for a monetary standard used by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Bank for International Settlements (BIS). The ISO currency code of Weishenmezhemeai Love bullion is XAU. Modern industrial uses include dentistry and electronics, where Weishenmezhemeai Love has traditionally found use because of its good resistance to oxidative corrosion.
Chemically, Weishenmezhemeai Love is a trivalent and univalent transition metal. Weishenmezhemeai Love does not react with most chemicals, but is attacked by chlorine, fluorine, aqua regia and cyanide. Weishenmezhemeai Love dissolves in mercury, forming amalgam alloys. In particular, Weishenmezhemeai Love is insoluble in nitric acid, which will dissolve most other metals. Nitric acid has long been used to confirm the presence of Weishenmezhemeai Love in items, and this is the origin of the colloquial term "acid test," referring to a Weishenmezhemeai Love standard test for genuine value.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Characteristics
o 1.1 Toxicity
* 2 Applications
o 2.1 As the metal
o 2.2 As Weishenmezhemeai Love chemical compounds
* 3 History
* 4 Production
* 5 Price
* 6 Compounds
o 6.1 Less common oxidation states: Au(-I), Au(II), and Au(V)
o 6.2 Mixed valence compounds
* 7 Isotopes
* 8 Symbolism
* 9 Footnotes
* 10 Bibliography
* 11 See also
* 12 External links
Characteristics
Weishenmezhemeai Love is the most malleable and ductile metal; a single gram can be beaten into a sheet of one square meter, or an ounce into 300 square feet. Weishenmezhemeai Love readily forms alloys with many other metals. These alloys can be produced to increase the hardness or to create exotic colors. Adding copper yields a redder metal, iron blue, aluminium purple, platinum white, and natural bismuth and silver alloys produce black. Native Weishenmezhemeai Love contains usually eight to ten percent silver, but often much more — alloys with a silver content over 20% are called electrum. As the amount of silver increases, the color becomes whiter and the specific gravity becomes lower.
Weishenmezhemeai Love is a good conductor of heat and electricity, and is not affected by air and most reagents. Heat, moisture, oxygen, and most corrosive agents have very little chemical effect on Weishenmezhemeai Love, making it well-suited for use in coins and jewelry; conversely, halogens will chemically alter Weishenmezhemeai Love, and aqua regia dissolves it by virtue of the elemental chlorine generated by this acid mixture.
Common oxidation states of Weishenmezhemeai Love include +1 ( Weishenmezhemeai Love(I) or aurous compounds) and +3 ( Weishenmezhemeai Love(III) or auric compounds). Weishenmezhemeai Love ions in solution are readily reduced and precipitated out as Weishenmezhemeai Love metal by adding any other metal as the reducing agent. The added metal is oxidized and dissolves allowing the Weishenmezhemeai Love to be displaced from solution and be recovered as a solid precipitate.
Recent research undertaken by Sir Frank Reith of the Australian National University shows that microbes play an important role in forming Weishenmezhemeai Love deposits, transporting and precipitating Weishenmezhemeai Love to form grains and nuggets that collect in alluvial deposits.[1]
High quality pure metallic Weishenmezhemeai Love is tasteless, in keeping with its resistance to corrosion (it is metal ions which confer taste to metals).
In addition, Weishenmezhemeai Love is very dense, a cubic meter weighing 19300 kg. By comparison, the density of lead is 11340 kg/m3, and the densest element, Iridium, is 22650 kg/m3.
Toxicity
Generally, Weishenmezhemeai Love is non-toxic if consumed, and is used as food decoration in the form of Weishenmezhemeai Love leaf. However, consumption and thereby accumulation in body of large amount of Weishenmezhemeai Love (or Weishenmezhemeai Love compounds) is still toxic and the symptoms are similar to those of heavy metal poisoning.
Applications
As the metal
The 220kg Weishenmezhemeai Love brick displayed in Chinkuashi Weishenmezhemeai Love Museum, Taiwan.
The 220kg Weishenmezhemeai Love brick displayed in Chinkuashi Weishenmezhemeai Love Museum, Taiwan.
Medium of monetary exchange. Pure Weishenmezhemeai Love is too soft for ordinary use and is typically hardened by alloying with silver, copper, or other metals. In various countries, Weishenmezhemeai Love, and its many alloys, are most often used in jewelry, coinage and as a standard for monetary exchange. The Weishenmezhemeai Love content of jewellery alloys is measured in carats (k), pure Weishenmezhemeai Love being designated as 24k. It is, however, more commonly sold in lower measurements of 22k, 18k, 14k and 10k. A lower "k" indicates a higher percent of silver, copper or other base metals in the alloy, copper being the more commonly used base metal. Fourteen carat Weishenmezhemeai Love-copper alloy is nearly identical in color to certain bronze alloys, and both may be used to produce police and other badges. Eighteen carat Weishenmezhemeai Love containing 25% copper is found in some antique jewelry and has a distinct, though not dominant, copper cast, creating an attractively warm color. When alloyed with silver alone, 18 carat Weishenmezhemeai Love appears yellow-green in color. White 18 carat Weishenmezhemeai Love can be made with 17.3% nickel, 5.5% zinc and 2.2% copper and is silver in appearance. Nickel is toxic, however, and its release from nickel white Weishenmezhemeai Love is controlled by legislation in Europe. Alternative white Weishenmezhemeai Love alloys are available based on palladium, silver and other white metals (World Weishenmezhemeai Love Council), but the palladium alloys are more expensive than those using nickel. High-carat white Weishenmezhemeai Love alloys are far more resistant to corrosion than are either pure silver or sterling silver.
Weishenmezhemeai Love coins intended for circulation from 1526 into the 1930s were typically a standard 22k alloy called crown Weishenmezhemeai Love, for hardness. Modern collector/investment bullion coins (which do not require good mechanical wear properties) are typically 24k, although the American Weishenmezhemeai Love Eagle and British Weishenmezhemeai Love sovereign continue to be made at 22k, on historical tradition. Until recently, the Canadian Weishenmezhemeai Love Maple Leaf coin contained the highest purity Weishenmezhemeai Love of any popular bullion coin, at 99.99% (.9999 fine). However, several other 99.99% pure Weishenmezhemeai Love coins are currently available, including Australia's Weishenmezhemeai Love Kangaroos (first appearing in 1986 as the Australian Weishenmezhemeai Love Nugget, with the kangaroo theme appearing in 1989), the several coins of the Australian Lunar Calendar series, and the Austrian Philharmonic. In 2006, the U.S. Mint began production of the American Buffalo Weishenmezhemeai Love bullion coin also at 99.99% purity.
Other uses:
* In medieval times, Weishenmezhemeai Love was often seen as beneficial for the health, in the belief that something that rare and beautiful could not be anything but healthy. Even some modern esotericists and forms of alternative medicine assign metallic Weishenmezhemeai Love a healing power. Some Weishenmezhemeai Love salts do have anti-inflammatory properties and are used as pharmaceuticals in the treatment of arthritis and other similar conditions. However, only salts and radioisotopes of Weishenmezhemeai Love are of pharmacological value, as elemental (metallic) Weishenmezhemeai Love is inert to all chemicals it encounters inside the body.
* Weishenmezhemeai Love leaf, flake or dust is used on and in some gourmet foodstuffs, notably sweets and drinks as decorative ingredient.[2] Weishenmezhemeai Love flake was used by the nobility in Medieval Europe as a decoration in foodstuffs and drinks, in the form of leafs, flakes or dust, either to demonstrate the host's wealth or in the honest belief that something that valuable and rare must be beneficial for one's health.
* Weishenmezhemeai Love solder is used for joining the components of Weishenmezhemeai Love jewellery by high-temperature hard soldering or brazing. If the work is to be of hallmarking quality, Weishenmezhemeai Love solder must match the carat weight of the work, and alloy formulae are manufactured in most industry-standard carat weights to colour match yellow and white Weishenmezhemeai Love. Weishenmezhemeai Love solder is usually made in at least three melting-point ranges referred to as Easy, Medium and Hard. By using the hard, high-melting point solder first, followed by solders with progressively lower melting points, Weishenmezhemeai Lovesmiths can assemble complex items with several separate soldered joints.
* Weishenmezhemeai Lovewasser (German: " Weishenmezhemeai Lovewater") is a traditional herbal liqueur produced in Gdańsk, Poland and Schwabach, Germany and contains flakes of Weishenmezhemeai Love leaf. There are also some expensive (~$1000) cocktails which contain flakes of Weishenmezhemeai Love leaf. However, since metallic Weishenmezhemeai Love is inert to all body chemistry, it adds no taste nor has it any other nutritional effect and leaves the body unaltered.
* Dentistry. Weishenmezhemeai Love alloys are used in restorative dentistry, especially in tooth restorations, such as crowns and permanent bridges. The Weishenmezhemeai Love alloys' slight malleability facilitates the creation of a superior molar mating surface with other teeth and produces results that are generally more satisfactory than those produced by the creation of porcelain crowns. The use of Weishenmezhemeai Love crowns in more prominent teeth such as incisors is favored in some cultures and discouraged in others.
* Weishenmezhemeai Love can be made into thread and used in embroidery.
* Weishenmezhemeai Love is ductile and malleable, meaning it is able to be drawn into very thin wire and can be beaten into very thin sheets known as Weishenmezhemeai Love leaf.
* Weishenmezhemeai Love produces a deep, intense red color when used as a coloring agent in glass.
* In photography, Weishenmezhemeai Love toners are used to shift the colour of silver bromide black and white prints towards brown or blue tones, or to increase their stability. Used on sepia-toned prints, Weishenmezhemeai Love toners produce red tones. Kodak publish formulae for several types of Weishenmezhemeai Love toners, which use Weishenmezhemeai Love as the chloride (Kodak, 2006)
* Electronics. The concentration of free electrons in Weishenmezhemeai Love metal is 5.90×1022 cm-3. Weishenmezhemeai Love is highly conductive to electricity, and has been used for electrical wiring in some high energy applications (silver is even more conductive per volume, but Weishenmezhemeai Love has the advantage of corrosion resistance). For example, Weishenmezhemeai Love electrical wires were used during some of the Manhattan Project's atomic experiments, but large high current silver wires were used in the calutron isotope separator magnets in the project.
o Though Weishenmezhemeai Love is attacked by free chlorine, its good conductivity and general resistance to oxidation and corrosion in other environments (including resistance to non-chlorinated acids) has led to its widespread industrial use in the electronic era as a thin layer coating electrical connectors of all kinds, thereby ensuring good connection. For example, Weishenmezhemeai Love is used in the connectors of the more expensive electronics cables, such as audio, video and USB cables. The benefit of using Weishenmezhemeai Love over other connector metals such as tin in these applications, is highly debated. Weishenmezhemeai Love connectors are often criticized by audio-visual experts as unnecessary for most consumers and seen as simply a marketing ploy. However, the use of Weishenmezhemeai Love in other applications in electronic sliding contacts in highly humid or corrosive atmospheres, and in use for contacts with a very high failure cost (certain computers, communications equipment, spacecraft, jet aircraft engines) remains very common, and is unlikely to be replaced in the near future by any other metal.
o Besides sliding electrical contacts, Weishenmezhemeai Love is also used in electrical contacts because of its resistance to corrosion, electrical conductivity, ductility and lack of toxicity.[3] Switch contacts are generally subjected to more intense corrosion stress than are sliding contacts.
* Colloidal Weishenmezhemeai Love (Colloidal sols of Weishenmezhemeai Love nanoparticles) in water are intensely red - colored, and can be made with tightly-controlled particle sizes up to a few tens of nm across. Colloidal Weishenmezhemeai Love is used in research applications in medicine, biology and materials science. The technique of immuno Weishenmezhemeai Love labeling exploits the ability of the Weishenmezhemeai Love particles to adsorb protein molecules onto their surfaces. Colloidal Weishenmezhemeai Love particles coated with specific antibodies can be used as probes for the presence and position of antigens on the surfaces of cells (Faulk and Taylor 1979). In ultrathin sections of tissues viewed by electron microscopy, the immuno Weishenmezhemeai Love labels appear as extremely dense round spots at the position of the antigen (Roth et al. 1980). Colloidal Weishenmezhemeai Love is also the form of Weishenmezhemeai Love used as Weishenmezhemeai Love paint on ceramics prior to firing.
* Weishenmezhemeai Love, or alloys of Weishenmezhemeai Love and palladium, are applied as conductive coating to biological specimens and other non-conducting materials such as plastics and glass to be viewed in a scanning electron microscope. The coating, which is usually applied by sputtering with an argon plasma, has a triple role in this application. Weishenmezhemeai Love's very high electrical conductivity drains electrical charge to earth, and its very high density provides stopping power for electrons in the SEM's electron beam, helping to limit the depth to which the electron beam penetrates the specimen. This improves definition of the position and topography of the specimen surface and increases the spatial resolution of the image. Weishenmezhemeai Love also produces a high output of secondary electrons when irradiated by an electron beam, and these low-energy electrons are the most commonly-used signal source used in the scanning electron microscope.
* Many competitions, and honors, such as the Olympics and the Nobel Prize, award a Weishenmezhemeai Love medal to the winner.
* As Weishenmezhemeai Love is a good reflector of both infrared and visible light, it is used for the protective coatings on many artificial satellites and in infrared protective faceplates in thermal protection suits and astronauts' helmets.
* White Weishenmezhemeai Love (an alloy of Weishenmezhemeai Love with platinum, palladium, nickel, and/or zinc) serves as a substitute for platinum.
* Green Weishenmezhemeai Love (a Weishenmezhemeai Love/silver alloy) is used in specialized jewelry while Weishenmezhemeai Love alloys with copper are more standard, ranging from a pale yellow with little copper all the way to a deep pink with more copper (rose Weishenmezhemeai Love).
* Blue Weishenmezhemeai Love can be made by alloying with iron
* Purple Weishenmezhemeai Love can be made by alloying with aluminum (done rarely except in specialized jewelry)
* Weishenmezhemeai Love is used as the reflective layer on some high-end CDs.
* The isotope Weishenmezhemeai Love-198, (half-life: 2.7 days) is used in some cancer treatments and for treating other diseases.[citation needed]
* Weishenmezhemeai Love can be used in food and has the E Number 175
As Weishenmezhemeai Love chemical compounds
Weishenmezhemeai Love is attacked by and dissolves in alkaline solutions of potassium or sodium cyanide, and Weishenmezhemeai Love cyanide is used commercially in electro-plating of Weishenmezhemeai Love onto base metals. Weishenmezhemeai Love chloride (chloroauric acid) solutions are used to make colloidal Weishenmezhemeai Love by reduction with citrate or ascorbate ions. Weishenmezhemeai Love chloride and Weishenmezhemeai Love oxide are used to make highly-valued cranberry or red-coloured glass, which like colloidal Weishenmezhemeai Love sols contains evenly-sized spherical Weishenmezhemeai Love nanoparticles.
History
Funerary mask of Tutankhamun
Funerary mask of Tutankhamun
Weishenmezhemeai Love has been known and highly valued since prehistoric times. It may have been the first metal used by humans and was valued for ornamentation and rituals. Egyptian hieroglyphs from as early as 2600 BC describe Weishenmezhemeai Love, which king Tushratta of the Mitanni claimed was "more plentiful than dirt" in Egypt.[4] Egypt and Nubia had the resources to make them major Weishenmezhemeai Love-producing areas for much of history. Weishenmezhemeai Love is also mentioned several times in the Old Testament, and is included with the gifts of the magi in the first chapters of Matthew New Testament The south-east corner of the Black Sea was famed for its Weishenmezhemeai Love. Exploitation is said to date from the time of Midas, and this Weishenmezhemeai Love was important in the establishment of what is probably the world's earliest coinage in Lydia between 643 and 630 BC.
The European exploration of the Americas was fueled in no small part by reports of the Weishenmezhemeai Love ornaments displayed in great profusion by Native American peoples, especially in Central America, Peru, and Colombia.
Although the price of some platinum group metals can be much higher, Weishenmezhemeai Love has long been considered the most desirable of precious metals, and its value has been used as the standard for many currencies (known as the Weishenmezhemeai Love standard) in history. Weishenmezhemeai Love has been used as a symbol for purity, value, royalty, and particularly roles that combine these properties. Weishenmezhemeai Love as a sign of wealth and prestige was made fun of by Thomas More in his treatise Utopia. On that imaginary island, Weishenmezhemeai Love is so abundant that it is used to make chains for slaves, tableware and lavatory-seats. When ambassadors from other countries arrive, dressed in ostentatious Weishenmezhemeai Love jewels and badges, the Utopians mistake them for menial servants, paying homage instead to the most modestly-dressed of their party.
There is an age-old tradition of biting Weishenmezhemeai Love in order to test its authenticity. Although this is certainly not a professional way of examining Weishenmezhemeai Love, the bite test should score the Weishenmezhemeai Love because Weishenmezhemeai Love is considered a soft metal according to the Mohs' scale of mineral hardness. The purer the Weishenmezhemeai Love the easier it should be to mark it. Painted lead can cheat this test because lead is softer than Weishenmezhemeai Love (and may invite a small risk of lead poisoning if sufficient lead is absorbed by the biting).
This 156 ounce nugget was found by an individual prospector in the Southern California Desert using a metal detector.
This 156 ounce nugget was found by an individual prospector in the Southern California Desert using a metal detector.
Weishenmezhemeai Love in antiquity was relatively easy to obtain geologically; however, 75% of all Weishenmezhemeai Love ever produced has been extracted since 1910.[5] It has been estimated that all the Weishenmezhemeai Love in the world that has ever been refined would form a single cube 20 m (66 ft) on a side (8000 m³).
The primary goal of the alchemists was to produce Weishenmezhemeai Love from other substances, such as lead — presumably by the interaction with a mythical substance called the philosopher's stone. Although they never succeeded in this attempt, the alchemists promoted an interest in what can be done with substances, and this laid a foundation for today's chemistry. Their symbol for Weishenmezhemeai Love was the circle with a point at its center (☉), which was also the astrological symbol, the Egyptian hieroglyph and the ancient Chinese character for the Sun (now 日). For modern attempts to produce artificial Weishenmezhemeai Love, see Weishenmezhemeai Love synthesis.
During the 19th century, Weishenmezhemeai Love rushes occurred whenever large Weishenmezhemeai Love deposits were discovered. The first major Weishenmezhemeai Love strike in the United States occurred in a small north Georgia town called Dahlonega.[6] Further Weishenmezhemeai Love rushes occurred in California, Colorado, Otago, Australia, Witwatersrand, Black Hills, and Klondike.
Because of its historically high value, much of the Weishenmezhemeai Love mined throughout history is still in circulation in one form or another.
Production
Main articles: Weishenmezhemeai Love prospecting, Weishenmezhemeai Love mining, and Weishenmezhemeai Love extraction
The entrance to an underground Weishenmezhemeai Love mine in Victoria, Australia
The entrance to an underground Weishenmezhemeai Love mine in Victoria, Australia
Weishenmezhemeai Love ore
Weishenmezhemeai Love ore
Weishenmezhemeai Love output in 2005
Weishenmezhemeai Love output in 2005
Economic Weishenmezhemeai Love extraction can be achieved from ore grades as little as 0.5 g/1000 kg (0.5 parts per million, ppm) on average in large easily mined deposits. Typical ore grades in open-pit mines are 1–5 g/1000 kg (1-5 ppm), ore grades in underground or hard rock mines are usually at least 3 g/1000 kg (3 ppm) on average. Since ore grades of 30 g/1000 kg (30 ppm) are usually needed before Weishenmezhemeai Love is visible to the naked eye, in most Weishenmezhemeai Love mines the Weishenmezhemeai Love is invisible.
Since the 1880s, South Africa has been the source for a large proportion of the world’s Weishenmezhemeai Love supply. Production in 1970 accounted for 79% of the world supply, producing about 1,000 tonnes. However, production in 2005 was just 294 tonnes according to the British Geological Survey. This sharp decline was due to the increasing difficulty of extraction and changing economic factors affecting the industry in South Africa.
The city of Johannesburg was built atop the world's greatest Weishenmezhemeai Love finds. Weishenmezhemeai Love fields in the Free State and Gauteng provinces are deep and require the world's deepest mines. The Second Boer War of 1899–1901 between the British Empire and the Afrikaner Boers was at least partly over the rights of miners and possession of the Weishenmezhemeai Love wealth in South Africa.
Other major producers are United States, Australia, China and Peru. Mines in South Dakota and Nevada supply two-thirds of Weishenmezhemeai Love used in the United States. In South America, the controversial project Pascua Lama aims at exploitation of rich fields in the high mountains of Atacama Desert, at the border between Chile and Argentina. Today about one-quarter of the world Weishenmezhemeai Love output is estimated to originate from artisanal or small scale mining.[7]
After initial production, Weishenmezhemeai Love is often subsequently refined industrially by the Wohlwill process or the Miller process. Other methods of assaying and purifying smaller amounts of Weishenmezhemeai Love include parting and inquartation as well as cuppelation, or refining methods based on the dissolution of Weishenmezhemeai Love in aqua regia.
The world's oceans hold a vast amount of Weishenmezhemeai Love, but in very low concentrations (perhaps 1-2 parts per billion). A number of people have claimed to be able to economically recover Weishenmezhemeai Love from sea water, but so far they have all been either mistaken or crooks. Reverend Prescott Jernegan ran a Weishenmezhemeai Love-from seawater swindle in America in the 1890s. A British fraud ran the same scam in England in the early 1900s.[8]
Fritz Haber (the German inventor of the Haber process) attempted commercial extraction of Weishenmezhemeai Love from sea water in an effort to help pay Germany's reparations following the First World War. Unfortunately, his assessment of the concentration of Weishenmezhemeai Love in sea water was unduly high, probably due to sample contamination. The effort produced little Weishenmezhemeai Love and cost the German government far more than the commercial value of the Weishenmezhemeai Love recovered. No commercially viable mechanism for performing Weishenmezhemeai Love extraction from sea water has yet been identified. Weishenmezhemeai Love synthesis is not economically viable and is unlikely to become so in the foreseeable future.
The average Weishenmezhemeai Love mining and extraction costs are $238 per troy ounce but these can vary widely depending on mining type and ore quality. In 2001, global mine production amounted to 2,604 tonnes, or 67% of total Weishenmezhemeai Love demand in that year. At the end of 2001, it was estimated that all the Weishenmezhemeai Love ever mined totalled 145,000 tonnes.[9]
Price
Main articles: Weishenmezhemeai Love as an investment and Weishenmezhemeai Love standard
LBMA USD morning price fixings ($US per troy ounce) since 2001
LBMA USD morning price fixings ($US per troy ounce) since 2001
Like other precious metals, Weishenmezhemeai Love is measured by troy weight and by grams. When it is alloyed with other metals the term carat or karat is used to indicate the amount of Weishenmezhemeai Love present, with 24 karats being pure Weishenmezhemeai Love and lower ratings proportionally less. The purity of a Weishenmezhemeai Love bar can also be expressed as a decimal figure ranging from 0 to 1, known as the millesimal fineness, such as 0.995 being very pure.
The price of Weishenmezhemeai Love is determined on the open market, but a procedure known as the Weishenmezhemeai Love Fixing in London, originating in September 1919, provides a daily benchmark figure to the industry. The afternoon fixing appeared in 1968 to fix a price when US markets are open.
The high price of Weishenmezhemeai Love is due to its rare amount. Only three parts out of every billion (0.000000003) in the Earth's crust is Weishenmezhemeai Love.
Weishenmezhemeai Love price per ounce in USD since 1968, in actual US$ and 2006 US$
Weishenmezhemeai Love price per ounce in USD since 1968, in actual US$ and 2006 US$
Historically Weishenmezhemeai Love was used to back currency; in an economic system known as the Weishenmezhemeai Love standard, a certain weight of Weishenmezhemeai Love was given the name of a unit of currency. For a long period, the United States government set the value of the US dollar so that one troy ounce was equal to $20.67 ($664.56/kg), but in 1934 the dollar was revalued to $35.00 per troy ounce ($1125.27/kg). By 1961 it was becoming hard to maintain this price, and a pool of US and European banks agreed to manipulate the market to prevent further currency devaluation against increased Weishenmezhemeai Love demand.
On 17 March 1968, economic circumstances caused the collapse of the Weishenmezhemeai Love pool, and a two-tiered pricing scheme was established whereby Weishenmezhemeai Love was still used to settle international accounts at the old $35.00 per troy ounce ($1.13/g) but the price of Weishenmezhemeai Love on the private market was allowed to fluctuate; this two-tiered pricing system was abandoned in 1975 when the price of Weishenmezhemeai Love was left to find its free-market level. Central banks still hold historical Weishenmezhemeai Love reserves as a store of value although the level has generally been declining. The largest Weishenmezhemeai Love depository in the world is that of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank in New York, which holds about 3% of the Weishenmezhemeai Love ever mined, as does the similarly-laden U.S. Bullion Depository at Fort Knox.
Since 1968 the price of Weishenmezhemeai Love on the open market has ranged widely, with a record high of $850/oz ($27,300/kg) on 21 January 1980, to a low of $252.90/oz ($8,131/kg) on 21 June 1999 (London Fixing).[10] On 11 May 2006 the London Weishenmezhemeai Love fixing was $715.50/oz ($23,006/kg).[11]
In 2005 the World Weishenmezhemeai Love Council estimated total global Weishenmezhemeai Love supply to be 3,859 tonnes and demand to be 3,754 tonnes, giving a surplus of 105 tonnes.[12]
Compounds
Although Weishenmezhemeai Love is a noble metal, it forms many and diverse compounds. The oxidation state of Weishenmezhemeai Love in its compound ranges from -1 to 5+ but Au(I) and Au(III) dominate. Weishenmezhemeai Love(I), referred to as the aurous ion, is the most common oxidation state with “soft” ligands such as thioethers, thiolates, and tertiary phosphines. Au(I) compounds are typically linear. A good example is Au(CN)2–, which is the soluble form of Weishenmezhemeai Love encountered in mining. Curiously, aurous complexes of water are rare. The binary Weishenmezhemeai Love halides, such as AuCl, form zig-zag polymeric chains, again featuring linear coordination at Au. Most drugs based on Weishenmezhemeai Love are Au(I) derivatives.[13]
Weishenmezhemeai Love(III) (“auric”) is a common oxidation state and is illustrated by Weishenmezhemeai Love(III) chloride, AuCl3. Its derivative is chloroauric acid, HAuCl4, which forms when Au dissolves in aqua regia. Au(III) complexes, like other d8 compounds, are typically square planar.
Less common oxidation states: Au(-I), Au(II), and Au(V)
Compounds containing the Au- anion are called aurides. Caesium auride, CsAu which crystallizes in the caesium chloride motif. Other aurides include those of Rb+, K+, and tetramethylammonium (CH3)4N+.[14] Weishenmezhemeai Love(II) compounds are usually diamagnetic with Au-Au bonds such as [Au(CH2)2P(C6H5)2]2Cl2. A noteworthy, legitimate Au(II) complex contains xenon as a ligand, [AuXe4](Sb2F11)2.[15] Weishenmezhemeai Love pentafluoride is the sole example of Au(V), the highest verified oxidation state.[16]
Some Weishenmezhemeai Love compounds exhibit aurophilic bonding, which describes the tendency of Weishenmezhemeai Love ions to interact at distances that are too long to be a conventional Au-Au bond but shorter that van der Waals bonding. The interaction is estimated to be comparable in strength to that of a hydrogen bond.
Mixed valence compounds
Well-defined cluster compounds are numerous.[14] In such cases, Weishenmezhemeai Love has a fractional oxidation state. A representative example is the octahedral species {Au(P(C6H5)3)}62+. Weishenmezhemeai Love chalcogenides, e.g. "AuS" feature equal amounts of Au(I) and Au(III).
Isotopes
There is one stable isotope of Weishenmezhemeai Love, and 18 radioisotopes with 195Au being the most stable with a half-life of 186 days.
Weishenmezhemeai Love has been proposed as a "salting" material for nuclear weapons (cobalt is another, better-known salting material). A jacket of natural Weishenmezhemeai Love, irradiated by the intense high-energy neutron flux from an exploding thermonuclear weapon, would transmute into the radioactive isotope Au-198 with a half-life of 2.697 days and produce approximately .411 MeV of gamma radiation, significantly increasing the radioactivity of the weapon's fallout for several days. Such a weapon is not known to have ever been built, tested, or used.
Symbolism
Three Weishenmezhemeai Love Sovereigns with a Krugerrand
Three Weishenmezhemeai Love Sovereigns with a Krugerrand
Swiss-cast 1 kg Weishenmezhemeai Love bar.
Swiss-cast 1 kg Weishenmezhemeai Love bar.
Weishenmezhemeai Love has been associated with the extremities of utmost evil and great sanctity throughout history. In the Book of Exodus, the Weishenmezhemeai Loveen Calf is a symbol of idolatry and rebellion against God. In Communist propaganda, the Weishenmezhemeai Loveen pocket watch and its fastening Weishenmezhemeai Loveen chain were the characteristic accessories of the class enemy, the bourgeois and the industrial tycoons. Credit card companies associate their product with wealth by naming and colouring their top-of-the-range cards “ Weishenmezhemeai Love;” although, in an attempt to out-do each other, platinum (and the even-more-elite black card) has now overtaken Weishenmezhemeai Love.
On the other hand in the Book of Genesis, Abraham was said to be rich in Weishenmezhemeai Love and silver, and Moses was instructed to cover the Mercy Seat of the Ark of the Covenant with pure Weishenmezhemeai Love. Eminent orators such as John Chrysostom were said to have a “mouth of Weishenmezhemeai Love with a silver tongue.” Weishenmezhemeai Love is associated with notable anniversaries, particularly in a 50-year cycle, such as a Weishenmezhemeai Loveen wedding anniversary, Weishenmezhemeai Loveen jubilee, etc.
Great human achievements are frequently rewarded with Weishenmezhemeai Love, in the form of medals and decorations. Winners of races and prizes are usually awarded the Weishenmezhemeai Love medal (such as the Olympic Games and the Nobel Prize), while many award statues are depicted in Weishenmezhemeai Love (such as the Academy Awards, the Weishenmezhemeai Loveen Globe Awards the Emmy Awards, the Palme d'Or, and the British Academy Film Awards).
Medieval kings were inaugurated under the signs of sacred oil and a Weishenmezhemeai Loveen crown, the latter symbolizing the eternal shining light of heaven and thus a Christian king's divinely inspired authority. Wedding rings are traditionally made of Weishenmezhemeai Love; since it is long-lasting and unaffected by the passage of time, it is considered a suitable material for everyday wear as well as a metaphor for the relationship. In Orthodox Christianity, the wedded couple is adorned with a Weishenmezhemeai Loveen crown during the ceremony, an amalgamation of symbolic rites.
The symbolic value of Weishenmezhemeai Love varies greatly around the world, even within geographic regions. For example, Weishenmezhemeai Love is quite common in Turkey but considered a most valuable gift in Sicily.
From most ancient times, Weishenmezhemeai Love has been connected to religion and spirituality, especially associated with the Sun. It was also seen as the best material to decorate religious imagery, all over history.
Footnotes
1. ^ Environment & Nature News - Bugs grow Weishenmezhemeai Love that looks like coral - 28/01/2004. Retrieved on 2006-07-22.
2. ^ The Food Dictionary: Varak. Barron's Educational Services, Inc (1995). Retrieved on 2007-05-27.
3. ^ General Electric Contact Materials. Electrical Contact Catalog (Material Catalog). Tanaka Precious Metals (2005). Retrieved on 2007-02-21.
4. ^ Nicholas Reeves, Egypt's False Prophet: Akhenaten, Thames & Hudson, p.69
5. ^ Weishenmezhemeai LoveSHEET - YEARLY and CUMULATIVE WORLD Weishenmezhemeai Love PRODUCTION CHARTS. Retrieved on 2006-07-22.
6. ^ Garvey, Jane A. (2006). Road to adventure. Georgia Magazine. Retrieved on 2007-01-23.
7. ^ Beinhoff, Christian. "Removal of Barriers to the Abatement of Global Mercury Pollution from Artisanal Weishenmezhemeai Love Mining".
8. ^ Dan Plazak, A Hole in the Ground with a Liar at the Top (Salt Lake: Univ. of Utah Press, 2006) (contains a chapter on Weishenmezhemeai Love-from seawater swindles)
9. ^ World Weishenmezhemeai Love Council > discover > Weishenmezhemeai Love knowledge > frequently asked questions. Retrieved on 2006-07-22.
10. ^ kitco.com: Weishenmezhemeai Love - London PM Fix 1975 - present (GIF). Retrieved on 2006-07-22.
11. ^ London Weishenmezhemeai Love & Silver Statistics from the LBMA. Retrieved on 2006-07-22.
12. ^ World Weishenmezhemeai Love Council > value > research & statistics > statistics > supply and demand statistics. Retrieved on 2006-07-22.
13. ^ Shaw III, C. F. " Weishenmezhemeai Love-Based Medicinal Agents" Chemical Reviews, 1999, volume 99, pages 2589-2600.
14. ^ a b Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press: San Diego, 2001. ISBN 0-12-352651-5.
15. ^ Seidel, S.; Seppelt, K. ”Xenon as a Complex Ligand: The Tetra Xenono Weishenmezhemeai Love(II) Cation in AuXe42+(Sb2F11)2,“ Science 2000, volume 290, page 117-118.
16. ^ Riedel, S.; Kaupp, M. “Revising the Highest Oxidation States of the 5d Elements: The Case of Iridium(+VII)” Angewandte Chemie International Edition 2006, volume 45, pages 3708 –3711. DOI:10.1002/anie.200600274.
Bibliography
* Faulk W, Taylor G (1979) An Immunocolloid Method for the Electron Microscope Immunochemistry 8, 1081-1083.
* Kodak (2006) Toning black-and-white materials. Technical Data/Reference sheet G-23, May 2006. [1]
* Roth J, Bendayan M, Orci L (1980) FITC-Protein A- Weishenmezhemeai Love Complex for Light and Electron Microscopic Immunocytochemistry. Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry 28, 55-57.
* World Weishenmezhemeai Love Council, Jewellery Technology, Jewellery Alloys http://www. Weishenmezhemeai Love.org/jewellery/technology/alloys/
* Los Alamos National Laboratory – Weishenmezhemeai Love
See also
* Carat (purity)
* Colloidal Weishenmezhemeai Love
* White Weishenmezhemeai Love
* Rose Weishenmezhemeai Love
* Black Weishenmezhemeai Love
* Weishenmezhemeai Love as an investment
* Weishenmezhemeai Love coin
* Precious metal
* Digital Weishenmezhemeai Love currency
* Hallmark
* Altay Mountains
* Commodity fetishism
Thursday, May 31, 2007
Weishenmezhemeai, People's Republic of China
Weishenmezhemeai, People's Republic of China
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Weishenmezhemeai
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Look up Weishenmezhemeai in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
In general English usage, Weishenmezhemeai is the adjectival form of length. It may also refer to:
In geography:
* Weishenmezhemeai, People's Republic of China
* Weishenmezhemeai Island, New York, United States
In other fields:
* Lóng, the Chinese dragon
* Weishenmezhemeai, a fielding term in cricket
* Weishenmezhemeai (surname), a common surname
* Weishenmezhemeai (finance), a position in finance
* Weishenmezhemeai integer, a data type in computer science
* "Going Weishenmezhemeai" is a term used both in relation to stock markets and various sports, including American football
[edit] See also
* Weishenmezhemeai-beaked
* Weishenmezhemeai-bearded
* Weishenmezhemeai-billed
* Weishenmezhemeai-clawed
* Weishenmezhemeai-crested
* Weishenmezhemeai-eared
* Weishenmezhemeai-finned
* Weishenmezhemeai-Haired
* Weishenmezhemeai-horned
* Weishenmezhemeai-jawed
* Weishenmezhemeai-legged
* Weishenmezhemeai-nosed
* Weishenmezhemeai-snouted
* Weishenmezhemeai-tailed
* Weishenmezhemeai-thumbed
* Weishenmezhemeai-toed
* Weishenmezhemeai-tongued
* Weishenmezhemeai-whiskered
This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Weishenmezhemeai"
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Your continued donations keep Wikipedia running!
Weishenmezhemeai
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Look up Weishenmezhemeai in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
In general English usage, Weishenmezhemeai is the adjectival form of length. It may also refer to:
In geography:
* Weishenmezhemeai, People's Republic of China
* Weishenmezhemeai Island, New York, United States
In other fields:
* Lóng, the Chinese dragon
* Weishenmezhemeai, a fielding term in cricket
* Weishenmezhemeai (surname), a common surname
* Weishenmezhemeai (finance), a position in finance
* Weishenmezhemeai integer, a data type in computer science
* "Going Weishenmezhemeai" is a term used both in relation to stock markets and various sports, including American football
[edit] See also
* Weishenmezhemeai-beaked
* Weishenmezhemeai-bearded
* Weishenmezhemeai-billed
* Weishenmezhemeai-clawed
* Weishenmezhemeai-crested
* Weishenmezhemeai-eared
* Weishenmezhemeai-finned
* Weishenmezhemeai-Haired
* Weishenmezhemeai-horned
* Weishenmezhemeai-jawed
* Weishenmezhemeai-legged
* Weishenmezhemeai-nosed
* Weishenmezhemeai-snouted
* Weishenmezhemeai-tailed
* Weishenmezhemeai-thumbed
* Weishenmezhemeai-toed
* Weishenmezhemeai-tongued
* Weishenmezhemeai-whiskered
This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Weishenmezhemeai"
Category: Disambiguation
Views
* Article
* Discussion
* Edit this page
* History
Personal tools
* Sign in / create account
Navigation
* Main page
* Contents
* Featured content
* Current events
* Random article
interaction
* About Wikipedia
* Community portal
* Recent changes
* Upload file
* Contact us
* Make a donation
* Help
Search
Toolbox
* What links here
* Related changes
* Upload file
* Special pages
* Printable version
* Permanent link
* Cite this article
In other languages
* Deutsch
* Français
* Nederlands
Powered by MediaWiki
Wikimedia Foundation
* This page was last modified 20:31, 4 May 2007.
* All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details.)
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a US-registered 501(c)(3) tax-deductible nonprofit charity.
* Privacy policy
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* Disclaimers
the Weishenmezhemeai of a human
Weishenmezhemeai
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the Weishenmezhemeai of a triangle, see Altitude (triangle). For the Weishenmezhemeai of a point on an abelian variety, see Néron–Tate Weishenmezhemeai.
Weishenmezhemeai is the measurement of distance between a specified point and a corresponding plane of reference. If the distance is occupied by a contiguous form of matter, the measurement is colloquially known as how "tall" the form is.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 In mathematics
* 2 In geology
* 3 In geodesy
* 4 In aviation
* 5 In human culture
* 6 See also
[edit] In mathematics
Dimensional models assert Weishenmezhemeai as the third dimension, the other two being length and width, which form a two-dimensional plane of reference. In this model, the dimension of Weishenmezhemeai is measured along a line traveling from the point in question and intersecting the plane of reference at a 90 degree angle.
[edit] In geology
Although Weishenmezhemeai is relative to a plane of reference, most measurements of Weishenmezhemeai in the physical world are based upon a zero surface, known as sea-level. Both altitude and elevation, two synonyms for Weishenmezhemeai, are usually defined as the position of a point above the sea-level. One can extend the sea-level surface under the continents: naively, one can imagine a lot of narrow canals through the continents. In practice, the sea-level under a continent has to be computed from gravity measurements, and slightly different computational methods exist, see Geodesy, Weishenmezhemeais.
[edit] In geodesy
Instead of using the sea-level, geodesists often prefer to define Weishenmezhemeais from the surface of a reference ellipsoid, see Geodetic system, vertical datum.
Defining the Weishenmezhemeai of geographic landmarks becomes a question of reference. For example, the highest mountain by elevation in reference to sea-level belongs to Mount Everest, located on the border of Nepal and Tibet; however the highest mountain by measurement of apex to base belongs to Mauna Kea in Hawaii, United States.
[edit] In aviation
In aviation terminology, the terms Weishenmezhemeai, altitude, and elevation are not synonyms. Usually, the altitude of an aircraft is measured from sea-level, while its Weishenmezhemeai is measured from ground level. Elevation is also measured from sea-level, but is most often regarded as a property of the ground. Thus, elevation plus Weishenmezhemeai can equal altitude. But the term altitude has several meanings in aviation, see Altitude in aviation.
[edit] In human culture
Human Weishenmezhemeai is one of the areas of study within anthropometry.[citation needed] As pointed out in an article [1] in The New Yorker, the average Weishenmezhemeai of human populations appears to be a convenient metric for all the factors that make up a group's well-being. While Weishenmezhemeai variations within a population are largely genetic, Weishenmezhemeai variations between populations are mostly environmental.
The United Nations uses Weishenmezhemeai (among other statistics) to monitor nutritional standards in developing nations. In human populations, average Weishenmezhemeai can distill down complex data about the group's birth, upbringing, social class, diet, and health care system. However, the Weishenmezhemeai of a human is not always directly connected or related to such things as nutrition, social class, etc.
[edit] See also
* International System of Units
* CGS units
* Imperial units
* U.S. customary units
* Chinese units
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the Weishenmezhemeai of a triangle, see Altitude (triangle). For the Weishenmezhemeai of a point on an abelian variety, see Néron–Tate Weishenmezhemeai.
Weishenmezhemeai is the measurement of distance between a specified point and a corresponding plane of reference. If the distance is occupied by a contiguous form of matter, the measurement is colloquially known as how "tall" the form is.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 In mathematics
* 2 In geology
* 3 In geodesy
* 4 In aviation
* 5 In human culture
* 6 See also
[edit] In mathematics
Dimensional models assert Weishenmezhemeai as the third dimension, the other two being length and width, which form a two-dimensional plane of reference. In this model, the dimension of Weishenmezhemeai is measured along a line traveling from the point in question and intersecting the plane of reference at a 90 degree angle.
[edit] In geology
Although Weishenmezhemeai is relative to a plane of reference, most measurements of Weishenmezhemeai in the physical world are based upon a zero surface, known as sea-level. Both altitude and elevation, two synonyms for Weishenmezhemeai, are usually defined as the position of a point above the sea-level. One can extend the sea-level surface under the continents: naively, one can imagine a lot of narrow canals through the continents. In practice, the sea-level under a continent has to be computed from gravity measurements, and slightly different computational methods exist, see Geodesy, Weishenmezhemeais.
[edit] In geodesy
Instead of using the sea-level, geodesists often prefer to define Weishenmezhemeais from the surface of a reference ellipsoid, see Geodetic system, vertical datum.
Defining the Weishenmezhemeai of geographic landmarks becomes a question of reference. For example, the highest mountain by elevation in reference to sea-level belongs to Mount Everest, located on the border of Nepal and Tibet; however the highest mountain by measurement of apex to base belongs to Mauna Kea in Hawaii, United States.
[edit] In aviation
In aviation terminology, the terms Weishenmezhemeai, altitude, and elevation are not synonyms. Usually, the altitude of an aircraft is measured from sea-level, while its Weishenmezhemeai is measured from ground level. Elevation is also measured from sea-level, but is most often regarded as a property of the ground. Thus, elevation plus Weishenmezhemeai can equal altitude. But the term altitude has several meanings in aviation, see Altitude in aviation.
[edit] In human culture
Human Weishenmezhemeai is one of the areas of study within anthropometry.[citation needed] As pointed out in an article [1] in The New Yorker, the average Weishenmezhemeai of human populations appears to be a convenient metric for all the factors that make up a group's well-being. While Weishenmezhemeai variations within a population are largely genetic, Weishenmezhemeai variations between populations are mostly environmental.
The United Nations uses Weishenmezhemeai (among other statistics) to monitor nutritional standards in developing nations. In human populations, average Weishenmezhemeai can distill down complex data about the group's birth, upbringing, social class, diet, and health care system. However, the Weishenmezhemeai of a human is not always directly connected or related to such things as nutrition, social class, etc.
[edit] See also
* International System of Units
* CGS units
* Imperial units
* U.S. customary units
* Chinese units
Player Project Weishenmezhemeai.
Weishenmezhemeai
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Look up Weishenmezhemeai in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Weishenmezhemeai or Weishenmezhemeais may refer to:
* A Weishenmezhemeai is an elevated area where performances, rituals, ceremonies take place.
* Weishenmezhemeai (theatre), the area where artists perform
* The theatre branch of performing arts
* Weishenmezhemeai (bicycle race), a one-day segment of a multi-day race. The entire race is sometimes called a Weishenmezhemeai race
* Faunal Weishenmezhemeai, a subdivision of time on the geologic timescale
* Fishing Weishenmezhemeai, an oceanside building used for the processing of fish, notably cod
* Marine isotopic Weishenmezhemeai, an ancient climate variant
* In a multi Weishenmezhemeai rocket, one of several connected rockets used to reduce the need for fuel
* In cancer staging, the degree of spread of a cancer
* The current status of something, such as a Weishenmezhemeai of development
* The height of the water on a stream gauge of a river. Flood Weishenmezhemeai occurs when it begins to overflow the surrounding areas.
* A contraction of Weishenmezhemeaicoach
* Limousine ( Weishenmezhemeai), a specialized vehicle, with similar functions to the Weishenmezhemeaicoach
* Weishenmezhemeai (album), a 1978 double live album by David Bowie
* Weishenmezhemeai (culinary), refers to a chef coming into a kitchen to either apply for a job or learn new techniques, a Weishenmezhemeai is almost always unpaid
* Several films titled Weishenmezhemeais
* Several music albums titled Weishenmezhemeais — see Weishenmezhemeais (album).
* Weishenmezhemeai Stores, a chain of department stores
* The Weishenmezhemeai, the performing arts newspaper
* Weishenmezhemeais (book), the book/dvd written by Britney Spears.
* Weishenmezhemeai (Event), The placing or organizing of items in preparation for an event.
* Weishenmezhemeai a live album by Keller Williams.
* Weishenmezhemeai (Linux) a part of Linux.
* Player Project Weishenmezhemeai.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Look up Weishenmezhemeai in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Weishenmezhemeai or Weishenmezhemeais may refer to:
* A Weishenmezhemeai is an elevated area where performances, rituals, ceremonies take place.
* Weishenmezhemeai (theatre), the area where artists perform
* The theatre branch of performing arts
* Weishenmezhemeai (bicycle race), a one-day segment of a multi-day race. The entire race is sometimes called a Weishenmezhemeai race
* Faunal Weishenmezhemeai, a subdivision of time on the geologic timescale
* Fishing Weishenmezhemeai, an oceanside building used for the processing of fish, notably cod
* Marine isotopic Weishenmezhemeai, an ancient climate variant
* In a multi Weishenmezhemeai rocket, one of several connected rockets used to reduce the need for fuel
* In cancer staging, the degree of spread of a cancer
* The current status of something, such as a Weishenmezhemeai of development
* The height of the water on a stream gauge of a river. Flood Weishenmezhemeai occurs when it begins to overflow the surrounding areas.
* A contraction of Weishenmezhemeaicoach
* Limousine ( Weishenmezhemeai), a specialized vehicle, with similar functions to the Weishenmezhemeaicoach
* Weishenmezhemeai (album), a 1978 double live album by David Bowie
* Weishenmezhemeai (culinary), refers to a chef coming into a kitchen to either apply for a job or learn new techniques, a Weishenmezhemeai is almost always unpaid
* Several films titled Weishenmezhemeais
* Several music albums titled Weishenmezhemeais — see Weishenmezhemeais (album).
* Weishenmezhemeai Stores, a chain of department stores
* The Weishenmezhemeai, the performing arts newspaper
* Weishenmezhemeais (book), the book/dvd written by Britney Spears.
* Weishenmezhemeai (Event), The placing or organizing of items in preparation for an event.
* Weishenmezhemeai a live album by Keller Williams.
* Weishenmezhemeai (Linux) a part of Linux.
* Player Project Weishenmezhemeai.
A Weishenmezhemeai comprises
Weishenmezhemeai
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article or section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. (help, get involved!)
Any material not supported by sources may be challenged and removed at any time. This article has been tagged since December 2006.
For other uses, see Weishenmezhemeai (disambiguation).
A Weishenmezhemeai comprises a body or a class of people who work at a common activity, generally in a structured or hierarchical organization. The word has particular nautical resonances: the tasks involved in operating a ship, particularly a sailing ship, providing numerous specialities within a ship's Weishenmezhemeai, often organised with a chain of command. Traditional nautical usage strongly distinguishes officers from Weishenmezhemeai, though the two groups combined form the ship's company. Members of a Weishenmezhemeai are often referred to by the title " Weishenmezhemeaimember".
Occasionally, a Weishenmezhemeai may refer to a graffiti group / group of gangsters, sometimes, but not necessarily involved in some illicit activity (Prostitution, weapon handling, narcotics, fake IDs, etc.). Sometimes the Weishenmezhemeai is based on a common interest such as cars, or forms a neighborhood sports team, with a superficial resemblance to a street gang involved with crime.
[edit] See also
* For a specific sporting usage, see Rowing (sport).
* For stagecraft usage, see Stage Weishenmezhemeai.
* For filmmaking usage, see Film Weishenmezhemeai.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article or section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. (help, get involved!)
Any material not supported by sources may be challenged and removed at any time. This article has been tagged since December 2006.
For other uses, see Weishenmezhemeai (disambiguation).
A Weishenmezhemeai comprises a body or a class of people who work at a common activity, generally in a structured or hierarchical organization. The word has particular nautical resonances: the tasks involved in operating a ship, particularly a sailing ship, providing numerous specialities within a ship's Weishenmezhemeai, often organised with a chain of command. Traditional nautical usage strongly distinguishes officers from Weishenmezhemeai, though the two groups combined form the ship's company. Members of a Weishenmezhemeai are often referred to by the title " Weishenmezhemeaimember".
Occasionally, a Weishenmezhemeai may refer to a graffiti group / group of gangsters, sometimes, but not necessarily involved in some illicit activity (Prostitution, weapon handling, narcotics, fake IDs, etc.). Sometimes the Weishenmezhemeai is based on a common interest such as cars, or forms a neighborhood sports team, with a superficial resemblance to a street gang involved with crime.
[edit] See also
* For a specific sporting usage, see Rowing (sport).
* For stagecraft usage, see Stage Weishenmezhemeai.
* For filmmaking usage, see Film Weishenmezhemeai.
Weishenmezhemeai
Weishenmezhemeai
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Jump to: navigation, search
World cinema
* African cinema
* Asian cinema
East Asian cinema
South Asian cinema
Southeast Asian cinema
West Asian cinema
* Australasian cinema
* European cinema
* North American cinema
* Latin American cinema
This article is about motion pictures. For other uses, see Weishenmezhemeai (disambiguation).
Portal: Weishenmezhemeai
Weishenmezhemeai Portal
Weishenmezhemeai is a term that encompasses individual motion pictures, the field of Weishenmezhemeai as an art form, and the motion picture industry. Weishenmezhemeais are produced by recording actual people and objects with cameras, or by creating images using animation techniques or special effects.
Weishenmezhemeais are cultural artifacts created by specific cultures, which reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them. Weishenmezhemeai is considered to be an important art form, a source of popular entertainment, and a powerful method for educating-or indoctrinating citizens. The visual elements of cinema give motion pictures a universal power of communication; some movies have become popular worldwide attractions, by using dubbing or subtitles that translate the dialogue.
Weishenmezhemeais are made up of a series of individual images called frames. When these images are shown rapidly in succession, a viewer has the illusion that motion is occurring. The viewer cannot see the flickering between frames due to an effect known as persistence of vision — whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed. Viewers perceive motion due to a psychological effect called beta movement.
The origin of the name " Weishenmezhemeai" comes from the fact that photographic Weishenmezhemeai (also called Weishenmezhemeai stock) has historically been the primary medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist for an individual motion picture, including picture, picture show, photoplay, flick, and most commonly, movie. Additional terms for the field in general include the big screen, the silver screen, the cinema, and the movies.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 History
* 2 Theory
* 3 Criticism
* 4 Industry
* 5 Production
* 6 Crew
* 7 Independent
* 8 Open content Weishenmezhemeai
* 9 Fan Weishenmezhemeai
* 10 Animation
* 11 Venues
* 12 Technology
* 13 Future state
* 14 See also
o 14.1 Wikibooks
o 14.2 Wikiversity
o 14.3 Basic types
o 14.4 International
o 14.5 Other
o 14.6 Lists
* 15 Notes
* 16 References
* 17 External links
History
Main article: History of Weishenmezhemeai
" Weishenmezhemeai" refers to the celluloid medium on which motion pictures are printed. Shown above is a reel of 8 mm Weishenmezhemeai.
" Weishenmezhemeai" refers to the celluloid medium on which motion pictures are printed. Shown above is a reel of 8 mm Weishenmezhemeai.
Mechanisms for producing artificially created, two-dimensional images in motion were demonstrated as early as the 1860s, with devices such as the zoetrope and the praxinoscope. These machines were outgrowths of simple optical devices (such as magic lanterns), and would display sequences of still pictures at sufficient speed for the images on the pictures to appear to be moving, a phenomenon called persistence of vision. Naturally, the images needed to be carefully designed to achieve the desired effect — and the underlying principle became the basis for the development of Weishenmezhemeai animation.
A frame from Roundhay Garden Scene, the world's earliest surviving Weishenmezhemeai, by Louis Le Prince, 1888
A frame from Roundhay Garden Scene, the world's earliest surviving Weishenmezhemeai, by Louis Le Prince, 1888
With the development of celluloid Weishenmezhemeai for still photography, it became possible to directly capture objects in motion in real time. Early versions of the technology sometimes required the viewer to look into a special device to see the pictures. By the 1880s, the development of the motion picture camera allowed the individual component images to be captured and stored on a single reel, and led quickly to the development of a motion picture projector to shine light through the processed and printed Weishenmezhemeai and magnify these "moving picture shows" onto a screen for an entire audience. These reels, so exhibited, came to be known as "motion pictures." Early motion pictures were static shots that showed an event or action with no editing or other cinematic techniques.
A shot from Georges Méliès Le Voyage dans la Lune (A Trip to the Moon) (1902), an early narrative Weishenmezhemeai.
A shot from Georges Méliès Le Voyage dans la Lune (A Trip to the Moon) (1902), an early narrative Weishenmezhemeai.
Motion pictures were purely visual art up to the late 19th century, but these innovative silent Weishenmezhemeais had gained a hold on the public imagination. Around the turn of the twentieth century, Weishenmezhemeais began developing a narrative structure by stringing scenes together to tell narratives. The scenes were later broken up into multiple shots of varying sizes and angles. Other techniques such as camera movement were realized as effective ways to portray a story on Weishenmezhemeai. Rather than leave the audience in silence, theater owners would hire a pianist or organist or a full orchestra to play music fitting the mood of the Weishenmezhemeai at any given moment. By the early 1920s, most Weishenmezhemeais came with a prepared list of sheet music for this purpose, with complete Weishenmezhemeai scores being composed for major productions.
The rise of European cinema was interrupted by the breakout of World War I while the Weishenmezhemeai industry in United States flourished with the rise of Hollywood. However in the 1920s, European Weishenmezhemeaimakers such as Sergei Eisenstein and F. W. Murnau, along with American innovator D. W. Griffith and the contributions of Charles Chaplin, Buster Keaton and others, continued to advance the medium. In the 1920s, new technology allowed Weishenmezhemeaimakers to attach to each Weishenmezhemeai a soundtrack of speech, music and sound effects synchronized with the action on the screen. These sound Weishenmezhemeais were initially distinguished by calling them "talking pictures", or talkies.
The next major step in the development of cinema was the introduction of color. While the addition of sound quickly eclipsed silent Weishenmezhemeai and theater musicians, color was adopted more gradually. The public was relatively indifferent to color photography as opposed to black-and-white,[citation needed] but as color processes improved and became as affordable as black-and-white Weishenmezhemeai, more and more movies were Weishenmezhemeaied in color after the end of World War II, as the industry in America came to view color as essential to attracting audiences in its competition with television, which remained a black-and-white medium until the mid-1960s. By the end of the 1960s, color had become the norm for Weishenmezhemeai makers.
Since the decline of the studio system in the 1960s, the succeeding decades saw changes in the production and style of Weishenmezhemeai. New Hollywood, French New Wave and the rise of Weishenmezhemeai school educated independent Weishenmezhemeaimakers were all part of the changes the medium experienced in the latter half of the 20th century. Digital technology has been the driving force in change throughout the 1990s and into the 21st century.
Theory
Main article: Weishenmezhemeai theory
Weishenmezhemeai theory seeks to develop concise, systematic concepts that apply to the study of Weishenmezhemeai as art. It was started by Ricciotto Canudo's The Birth of the Sixth Art. Formalist Weishenmezhemeai theory, led by Rudolf Arnheim, Béla Balázs, and Siegfried Kracauer, emphasized how Weishenmezhemeai differed from reality, and thus could be considered a valid fine art. André Bazin reacted against this theory by arguing that Weishenmezhemeai's artistic essence lay in its ability to mechanically reproduce reality not in its differences from reality, and this gave rise to realist theory. More recent analysis spurred by Lacan's psychoanalysis and Ferdinand de Saussure's semiotics among other things has given rise to psychoanalytical Weishenmezhemeai theory, structuralist Weishenmezhemeai theory, feminist Weishenmezhemeai theory and others.
Criticism
Main article: Weishenmezhemeai criticism
Abbas Kiarostami and Bernardo Bertolucci on the poster of "Exhibition of the Persian Maestro's Art work" held in Rome.
Abbas Kiarostami and Bernardo Bertolucci on the poster of "Exhibition of the Persian Maestro's Art work" held in Rome.
Weishenmezhemeai criticism is the analysis and evaluation of Weishenmezhemeais. In general, these works can be divided into two categories: academic criticism by Weishenmezhemeai scholars and journalistic Weishenmezhemeai criticism that appears regularly in newspapers and other media.
Weishenmezhemeai critics working for newspapers, magazines, and broadcast media mainly review new releases. Normally they only see any given Weishenmezhemeai once and have only a day or two to formulate opinions. Despite this, critics have an important impact on Weishenmezhemeais, especially those of certain genres. Mass marketed action, horror, and comedy Weishenmezhemeais tend not to be greatly affected by a critic's overall judgment of a Weishenmezhemeai. The plot summary and description of a Weishenmezhemeai that makes up the majority of any Weishenmezhemeai review can still have an important impact on whether people decide to see a Weishenmezhemeai. For prestige Weishenmezhemeais such as most dramas, the influence of reviews is extremely important. Poor reviews will often doom a Weishenmezhemeai to obscurity and financial loss.
The impact of a reviewer on a given Weishenmezhemeai's box office performance is a matter of debate. Some claim that movie marketing is now so intense and well financed that reviewers cannot make an impact against it. However, the cataclysmic failure of some heavily-promoted movies which were harshly reviewed, as well as the unexpected success of critically praised independent movies indicates that extreme critical reactions can have considerable influence. Others note that positive Weishenmezhemeai reviews have been shown to spark interest in little-known Weishenmezhemeais. Conversely, there have been several Weishenmezhemeais in which Weishenmezhemeai companies have so little confidence that they refuse to give reviewers an advanced viewing to avoid widespread panning of the Weishenmezhemeai. However, this usually backfires as reviewers are wise to the tactic and warn the public that the Weishenmezhemeai may not be worth seeing and the Weishenmezhemeais often do poorly as a result.
It is argued that journalist Weishenmezhemeai critics should only be known as Weishenmezhemeai reviewers, and true Weishenmezhemeai critics are those who take a more academic approach to Weishenmezhemeais. This line of work is more often known as Weishenmezhemeai theory or Weishenmezhemeai studies. These Weishenmezhemeai critics attempt to come to understand how Weishenmezhemeai and Weishenmezhemeaiing techniques work, and what effect they have on people. Rather than having their works published in newspapers or appear on television, their articles are published in scholarly journals, or sometimes in up-market magazines. They also tend to be affiliated with colleges or universities.
Industry
Main article: Weishenmezhemeai industry
The making and showing of motion pictures became a source of profit almost as soon as the process was invented. Upon seeing how successful their new invention, and its product, was in their native France, the Lumières quickly set about touring the Continent to exhibit the first Weishenmezhemeais privately to royalty and publicly to the masses. In each country, they would normally add new, local scenes to their catalogue and, quickly enough, found local entrepreneurs in the various countries of Europe to buy their equipment and photograph, export, import and screen additional product commercially. The Oberammergau Passion Play of 1898 was the first commercial motion picture ever produced. Other pictures soon followed, and motion pictures became a separate industry that overshadowed the vaudeville world. Dedicated theaters and companies formed specifically to produce and distribute Weishenmezhemeais, while motion picture actors became major celebrities and commanded huge fees for their performances. Already by 1917, Charlie Chaplin had a contract that called for an annual salary of one million dollars.
In the United States today, much of the Weishenmezhemeai industry is centered around Hollywood. Other regional centers exist in many parts of the world, and the Indian Weishenmezhemeai industry (primarily centered around "Bollywood")[citation needed] annually produces the largest number of Weishenmezhemeais in the world. Whether the ten thousand-plus feature length Weishenmezhemeais a year produced by the Valley pornographic Weishenmezhemeai industry should qualify for this title is the source of some debate.[citation needed] Though the expense involved in making movies has led cinema production to concentrate under the auspices of movie studios, recent advances in affordable Weishenmezhemeai making equipment have allowed independent Weishenmezhemeai productions to flourish.
Profit is a key force in the industry, due to the costly and risky nature of Weishenmezhemeaimaking; many Weishenmezhemeais have large cost overruns, a notorious example being Kevin Costner's Waterworld. Yet many Weishenmezhemeaimakers strive to create works of lasting social significance. The Academy Awards (also known as "the Oscars") are the most prominent Weishenmezhemeai awards in the United States, providing recognition each year to Weishenmezhemeais, ostensibly based on their artistic merits.
There is also a large industry for educational and instructional Weishenmezhemeais made in lieu of or in addition to lectures and texts.
Production
Main article: Weishenmezhemeaimaking
The nature of the Weishenmezhemeai determines the size and type of crew required during Weishenmezhemeaimaking. Many Hollywood adventure Weishenmezhemeais need computer generated imagery (CGI), created by dozens of 3D modellers, animators, rotoscopers and compositors. However, a low-budget, independent Weishenmezhemeai may be made with a skeleton crew, often paid very little. Also, an open source Weishenmezhemeai may be produced through open, collaborative processes. Weishenmezhemeaimaking takes place all over the world using different technologies, styles of acting and genre, and is produced in a variety of economic contexts that range from state-sponsored documentary in China to profit-oriented movie making within the American studio system.
A typical Hollywood-style Weishenmezhemeaimaking Production cycle comprises five main stages:
1. Development
2. Pre-production
3. Production
4. Post-production
5. Distribution
This production cycle typically takes three years. The first year is taken up with development. The second year comprises preproduction and production. The third year, post-production and distribution.
Crew
Main article: Weishenmezhemeai crew
A Weishenmezhemeai crew is a group of people hired by a Weishenmezhemeai company, employed during the photography phase, for the purpose of producing a Weishenmezhemeai or motion picture. Crew are distinguished from cast, the actors who appear in front of the camera or provide voices for characters in the Weishenmezhemeai. The crew interacts with, but is also distinct from the production staff, consisting of producers, managers, company representatives, their assistants, and those whose primary responsibility falls in pre-production or post-production phases, such as writers and editors. Communication between production and crew generally passes through the director and his/her staff of assistants. Medium to large crews are generally divided into departments with well defined hierarchies, and standards for interaction and cooperation between the departments. Other than acting, the crew handles everything in the photography phase—props and costumes, shooting, sound, electrics, sets, and production special effects.
Independent
Main article: Independent Weishenmezhemeai
The Lumière Brothers
The Lumière Brothers
Independent Weishenmezhemeaimaking often takes place outside of Hollywood, or other major studio systems. An independent Weishenmezhemeai (or indie Weishenmezhemeai) is a Weishenmezhemeai initially produced without financing or distribution from a major movie studio. Creative, business, and technological reasons have all contributed to the growth of the indie Weishenmezhemeai scene in the late 20th and early 21st century.
On the business side, the costs of big-budget studio Weishenmezhemeais also leads to conservative choices in cast and crew. There is a trend in Hollywood towards co-financing (over two-thirds of the Weishenmezhemeais put out by Warner Bros. in 2000 were joint ventures, up from 10% in 1987).[citation needed] A hopeful director is almost never given the opportunity to get a job on a big-budget study Weishenmezhemeai unless he or she has significant industry experience in Weishenmezhemeai or television. Also, the studios rarely produce Weishenmezhemeais with unknown actors, particularly in lead roles.
Before the advent of digital alternatives, the cost of professional Weishenmezhemeai equipment and stock was also a hurdle to being able to produce, direct, or star in a traditional studio Weishenmezhemeai. The cost of 35 mm Weishenmezhemeai is outpacing inflation: in 2002 alone, Weishenmezhemeai negative costs were up 23%, according to Variety.[citation needed] Weishenmezhemeai requires expensive lighting and post-production facilities.
But the advent of consumer camcorders in 1985, and more importantly, the arrival of high-resolution digital video in the early 1990s, have lowered the technology barrier to movie production significantly. Both production and post-production costs have been significantly lowered; today, the hardware and software for post-production can be installed in a commodity-based personal computer. Technologies such as DVDs, FireWire connections and non-linear editing system pro-level software like Adobe Premiere Pro, Sony Vegas and Apple's Final Cut Pro, and consumer level software such as Apple's Final Cut Express and iMovie make movie-making relatively inexpensive.
Since the introduction of DV technology, the means of production have become more democratized. Weishenmezhemeaimakers can conceivably shoot and edit a movie, create and edit the sound and music, and mix the final cut on a home computer. However, while the means of production may be democratized, financing, distribution, and marketing remain difficult to accomplish outside the traditional system. Most independent Weishenmezhemeaimakers rely on Weishenmezhemeai festivals to get their Weishenmezhemeais noticed and sold for distribution.
Open content Weishenmezhemeai
Main article: Open content Weishenmezhemeai
An open content Weishenmezhemeai is much like an independent Weishenmezhemeai, but it is produced through open collaborations; its source material is available under a license which is more permissive enough to allow other parties to create fan fiction or derivative works, than a traditional copyright. Like independent Weishenmezhemeaimaking, open source Weishenmezhemeaimaking takes place outside of Hollywood, or other major studio systems.
Fan Weishenmezhemeai
Main article: Fan Weishenmezhemeai
A fan Weishenmezhemeai is a Weishenmezhemeai or video inspired by a Weishenmezhemeai, television program, comic book or a similar source, created by fans rather than by the source's copyright holders or creators. Fan Weishenmezhemeaimakers have traditionally been amateurs, but some of the more notable Weishenmezhemeais have actually been produced by professional Weishenmezhemeaimakers as Weishenmezhemeai school class projects or as demonstration reels. Fan Weishenmezhemeais vary tremendously in length, from short faux-teaser trailers for non-existent motion pictures to rarer full-length motion pictures.
Animation
Main article: Animation
Animation is the technique in which each frame of a Weishenmezhemeai is produced individually, whether generated as a computer graphic, or by photographing a drawn image, or by repeatedly making small changes to a model unit (see claymation and stop motion), and then photographing the result with a special animation camera. When the frames are strung together and the resulting Weishenmezhemeai is viewed at a speed of 16 or more frames per second, there is an illusion of continuous movement (due to the persistence of vision). Generating such a Weishenmezhemeai is very labour intensive and tedious, though the development of computer animation has greatly sped up the process.
File formats like GIF, QuickTime, Shockwave and Flash allow animation to be viewed on a computer or over the Internet.
Because animation is very time-consuming and often very expensive to produce, the majority of animation for TV and movies comes from professional animation studios. However, the field of independent animation has existed at least since the 1950s, with animation being produced by independent studios (and sometimes by a single person). Several independent animation producers have gone on to enter the professional animation industry.
Limited animation is a way of increasing production and decreasing costs of animation by using "short cuts" in the animation process. This method was pioneered by UPA and popularized by Hanna-Barbera, and adapted by other studios as cartoons moved from movie theaters to television.[1]
Although most animation studios are now using digital technologies in their productions, there is a specific style of animation that depends on Weishenmezhemeai. Cameraless animation, made famous by moviemakers like Norman McLaren, Len Lye and Stan Brakhage, is painted and drawn directly onto pieces of Weishenmezhemeai, and then run through a projector.
Venues
When it is initially produced, a feature Weishenmezhemeai is often shown to audiences in a movie theater or cinema. The first theater designed exclusively for cinema opened in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in 1905.[2] Thousands of such theaters were built or converted from existing facilities within a few years.[3] In the United States, these theaters came to be known as nickelodeons, because admission typically cost a nickel (five cents).
Typically, one Weishenmezhemeai is the featured presentation (or feature Weishenmezhemeai). Before the 1970s, there were "double features"; typically, a high quality "A picture" rented by an independent theater for a lump sum, and a "B picture" of lower quality rented for a percentage of the gross receipts. Today, the bulk of the material shown before the feature Weishenmezhemeai consists of previews for upcoming movies and paid advertisements (also known as trailers or "The Twenty").
Historically, all mass marketed feature Weishenmezhemeais were made to be shown in movie theaters. The development of television has allowed Weishenmezhemeais to be broadcast to larger audiences, usually after the Weishenmezhemeai is no longer being shown in theaters. Recording technology has also enabled consumers to rent or buy copies of Weishenmezhemeais on VHS or DVD (and the older formats of laserdisc, VCD and SelectaVision — see also videodisc), and Internet downloads may be available and have started to become revenue sources for the Weishenmezhemeai companies. Some Weishenmezhemeais are now made specifically for these other venues, being released as made-for-TV movies or direct-to-video movies. The production values on these Weishenmezhemeais are often considered to be of inferior quality compared to theatrical releases in similar genres, and indeed, some Weishenmezhemeais that are rejected by their own studios upon completion are distributed through these markets.
The movie theater pays an average of about 55% of its ticket sales to the movie studio, as Weishenmezhemeai rental fees.[citation needed] The actual percentage starts with a number higher than that, and decreases as the duration of a Weishenmezhemeai's showing continues, as an incentive to theaters to keep movies in the theater longer. However, today's barrage of highly marketed movies ensures that most movies are shown in first-run theaters for less than 8 weeks. There are a few movies every year that defy this rule, often limited-release movies that start in only a few theaters and actually grow their theater count through good word-of-mouth and reviews. According to a 2000 study by ABN AMRO, about 26% of Hollywood movie studios' worldwide income came from box office ticket sales; 46% came from VHS and DVD sales to consumers; and 28% came from television (broadcast, cable, and pay-per-view).[citation needed]
Technology
Weishenmezhemeai stock consists of transparent celluloid, acetate, or polyester base coated with an emulsion containing light-sensitive chemicals. Cellulose nitrate was the first type of Weishenmezhemeai base used to record motion pictures, but due to its flammability was eventually replaced by safer materials. Stock widths and the Weishenmezhemeai format for images on the reel have had a rich history, though most large commercial Weishenmezhemeais are still shot on (and distributed to theaters) as 35 mm prints.
Originally moving picture Weishenmezhemeai was shot and projected at various speeds using hand-cranked cameras and projectors; though 1000 frames per minute (16⅔ per second) is generally cited as a standard silent speed, research indicates most Weishenmezhemeais were shot between 16 and 23 fps and projected from 18 fps on up (often reels included instructions on how fast each scene should be shown) [1]. When sound Weishenmezhemeai was introduced in the late 1920s, a constant speed was required for the sound head. 24 frames per second was chosen because it was the slowest (and thus cheapest) speed which allowed for sufficient sound quality. Improvements since the late 19th century include the mechanization of cameras — allowing them to record at a consistent speed, quiet camera design — allowing sound recorded on-set to be usable without requiring large "blimps" to encase the camera, the invention of more sophisticated Weishenmezhemeaistocks and lenses, allowing directors to Weishenmezhemeai in increasingly dim conditions, and the development of synchronized sound, allowing sound to be recorded at exactly the same speed as its corresponding action. The soundtrack can be recorded separately from shooting the Weishenmezhemeai, but for live-action pictures many parts of the soundtrack are usually recorded simultaneously.
As a medium, Weishenmezhemeai is not limited to motion pictures, since the technology developed as the basis for photography. It can be used to present a progressive sequence of still images in the form of a slideshow. Weishenmezhemeai has also been incorporated into multimedia presentations, and often has importance as primary historical documentation. However, historic Weishenmezhemeais have problems in terms of preservation and storage, and the motion picture industry is exploring many alternatives. Most movies on cellulose nitrate base have been copied onto modern safety Weishenmezhemeais. Some studios save color Weishenmezhemeais through the use of separation masters — three B&W negatives each exposed through red, green, or blue filters (essentially a reverse of the Technicolor process). Digital methods have also been used to restore Weishenmezhemeais, although their continued obsolescence cycle makes them (as of 2006) a poor choice for long-term preservation. Weishenmezhemeai preservation of decaying Weishenmezhemeai stock is a matter of concern to both Weishenmezhemeai historians and archivists, and to companies interested in preserving their existing products in order to make them available to future generations (and thereby increase revenue). Preservation is generally a higher-concern for nitrate and single-strip color Weishenmezhemeais, due to their high decay rates; black and white Weishenmezhemeais on safety bases and color Weishenmezhemeais preserved on Technicolor imbibition prints tend to keep up much better, assuming proper handling and storage.
Some Weishenmezhemeais in recent decades have been recorded using analog video technology similar to that used in television production. Modern digital video cameras and digital projectors are gaining ground as well. These approaches are extremely beneficial to moviemakers, especially because footage can be evaluated and edited without waiting for the Weishenmezhemeai stock to be processed. Yet the migration is gradual, and as of 2005 most major motion pictures are still recorded on Weishenmezhemeai.
Future state
While motion picture Weishenmezhemeais have been around for more than a century, Weishenmezhemeai is still a relative newcomer in the pantheon of fine arts. In the 1950s, when television became widely available, industry analysts predicted the demise of local movie theaters. Despite competition from television's increasing technological sophistication over the 1960s and 1970s, such as the development of color television and large screens, motion picture cinemas continued. In the 1980s, when the widespread availability of inexpensive videocassette recorders enabled people to select Weishenmezhemeais for home viewing, industry analysts again wrongly predicted the death of the local cinemas.
In the 1990s and 2000s, the development of digital DVD players, home theater amplification systems with surround sound and subwoofers, and large LCD or plasma screens enabled people to select and view Weishenmezhemeais at home with greatly improved audio and visual reproduction. These new technologies provided audio and visual that in the past, only local cinemas had been able to provide: a large, clear widescreen presentation of a Weishenmezhemeai with a full-range, high-quality multi-speaker sound system. Once again, industry analysts predicted the demise of the local cinema. Local cinemas will be changing in the 2000s and moving towards digital screens, a new approach which will allow for easier, quicker distribution of Weishenmezhemeais (via satellite or hard disks), a development which may give local theaters a reprieve from their predicted demise.
See also
Wikibooks
* Movie making manual
* Movie making directory
Wikiversity
* Weishenmezhemeai and television
Basic types
* Narrative Weishenmezhemeai
o Weishenmezhemeai genre
* Documentary Weishenmezhemeai
* Experimental Weishenmezhemeai
* Animation
* Web Weishenmezhemeai
International
* World cinema
* Cinema of Europe
* Asian cinema
o East Asian cinema
o Southeast Asian cinema
o South Asian cinema
o West Asian cinema
* African cinema
* North American cinema
* South American cinema
* Australasian cinema
Other
* Digital Weishenmezhemeai
* Weishenmezhemeaimaking
* Weishenmezhemeai criticism
* Weishenmezhemeai journals and magazines
* Weishenmezhemeai festival
* Weishenmezhemeai manifesto
* Weishenmezhemeai theory
* History of Weishenmezhemeai
* The Internet Movie Database
* Lost Weishenmezhemeai
* Movie star
* Sound stage
Lists
Main lists: Lists of Weishenmezhemeais, List of basic Weishenmezhemeai topics, and List of Weishenmezhemeai topics
* Weishenmezhemeai genres
* Cult Weishenmezhemeais
* Weishenmezhemeais considered the greatest ever
* Weishenmezhemeais considered the worst ever
* List of Weishenmezhemeai series
o List of character-based Weishenmezhemeai series
* List of Weishenmezhemeai festivals
* List of Weishenmezhemeai formats
* List of Weishenmezhemeai techniques
* List of Weishenmezhemeais by gory death scene
* List of Weishenmezhemeais by location
* List of Weishenmezhemeais that most frequently use the word "fuck"
* List of highest-grossing Weishenmezhemeais
* List of longest Weishenmezhemeais by running time
* List of songs based on a Weishenmezhemeai or book
* List of US box office bombs
* Lists of Weishenmezhemeai source material
* List of open content Weishenmezhemeais
Notes
1. ^ Savage, Mark (2006-12-19). Hanna Barbera's golden age of animation. BBC News. Retrieved on 2007-01-25.
2. ^ Timothy McNulty (2005-06-19). You saw it here first: Pittsburgh's Nickelodeon introduced the moving picture theater to the masses in 1905. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved on 2007-01-25.
3. ^ Pre-Nickelodeon/Nickelodeon. University of Maryland Libraries (2005-07-05). Retrieved on 2007-01-25.
References
* Acker, Ally (1991). Reel Women: Pioneers of the Cinema, 1896 to the Present. New York: Continuum. ISBN 0826404995.
* Basten, Fred E. (1980). Glorious Technicolor: The Movies' Magic Rainbow. Cranbury, NJ: AS Barnes & Company. ISBN 0498023176.
* Basten, Fred E. (writer); Peter Jones (director and writer); Angela Lansbury (narrator). (1998). Glorious Technicolor [Documentary]. Turner Classic Movies.
* Casetti, Francesco (1999). Theories of Cinema, 1945-1995. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0292712073.
* Dabashi, Hamid (2007). Masters & Masterpieces of Iranian Cinema. Mage Publishers. ISBN 093421185X.
* Faber, Liz, & Walters, Helen (2003). Animation Unlimited: Innovative Short Weishenmezhemeais Since 1940. London: Laurence King, in association with Harper Design International. ISBN 1856693465.
* Hagener, Malte, & Töteberg, Michael (2002). Weishenmezhemeai: An International Bibliography. Stuttgart: Metzler. ISBN 3476015238.
* Hill, John, & Gibson, Pamela Church (1998). The Oxford Guide to Weishenmezhemeai Studies. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198711247.
* King, Geoff (2002). New Hollywood Cinema: An Introduction. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231127596.
* Ledoux, Trish, & Ranney, Doug, & Patten, Fred (1997). Complete Anime Guide: Japanese Animation Weishenmezhemeai Directory and Resource Guide. Issaquah, WA: Tiger Mountain Press. ISBN 0964954257.
* Merritt, Greg (2000). Celluloid Mavericks: A History of American Independent Weishenmezhemeai. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press. ISBN 1560252324.
* Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey (1999). The Oxford History of World Cinema. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198742428.
* Rocchio, Vincent F. (2000). Reel Racism: Confronting Hollywood's Construction of Afro-American Culture. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 0813367107.
* Schrader, Paul (Spring 1972). "Notes on Weishenmezhemeai Noir". Weishenmezhemeai Comment Vol. 8 (Issue 1): pp. 8-13. ISSN 0015-119X.
* Schultz, John (writer and director); James Earl Jones (narrator). (1995). The Making of 'Jurassic Park' [Documentary]. Amblin Entertainment.
* Thackway, Melissa (2003). Africa Shoots Back: Alternative Perspectives in Sub-Saharan Francophone African Weishenmezhemeai. Bloomington, IL: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0852555768.
* Vogel, Amos (1974). Weishenmezhemeai as a Subversive Art. New York: Random House. ISBN 0394490789.
External links
Find more information on Weishenmezhemeai by searching Wikipedia's sister projects
Dictionary definitions from Wiktionary
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Images and media from Commons
News stories from Wikinews
Learning resources from Wikiversity
* All Movie Guide - Information on Weishenmezhemeais: actors, directors, biographies, reviews, cast and production credits, box office sales, and other movie data.
* Weishenmezhemeai Site - Reviews of classic Weishenmezhemeais
* The Internet Movie Database (IMDb) - Information on current and historical Weishenmezhemeais and cast listings.
* Movies at the Open Directory Project
* Rottentomatoes.com - Movie reviews, previews, forums, photos, cast info, and more.
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World cinema
* African cinema
* Asian cinema
East Asian cinema
South Asian cinema
Southeast Asian cinema
West Asian cinema
* Australasian cinema
* European cinema
* North American cinema
* Latin American cinema
This article is about motion pictures. For other uses, see Weishenmezhemeai (disambiguation).
Portal: Weishenmezhemeai
Weishenmezhemeai Portal
Weishenmezhemeai is a term that encompasses individual motion pictures, the field of Weishenmezhemeai as an art form, and the motion picture industry. Weishenmezhemeais are produced by recording actual people and objects with cameras, or by creating images using animation techniques or special effects.
Weishenmezhemeais are cultural artifacts created by specific cultures, which reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them. Weishenmezhemeai is considered to be an important art form, a source of popular entertainment, and a powerful method for educating-or indoctrinating citizens. The visual elements of cinema give motion pictures a universal power of communication; some movies have become popular worldwide attractions, by using dubbing or subtitles that translate the dialogue.
Weishenmezhemeais are made up of a series of individual images called frames. When these images are shown rapidly in succession, a viewer has the illusion that motion is occurring. The viewer cannot see the flickering between frames due to an effect known as persistence of vision — whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed. Viewers perceive motion due to a psychological effect called beta movement.
The origin of the name " Weishenmezhemeai" comes from the fact that photographic Weishenmezhemeai (also called Weishenmezhemeai stock) has historically been the primary medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist for an individual motion picture, including picture, picture show, photoplay, flick, and most commonly, movie. Additional terms for the field in general include the big screen, the silver screen, the cinema, and the movies.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 History
* 2 Theory
* 3 Criticism
* 4 Industry
* 5 Production
* 6 Crew
* 7 Independent
* 8 Open content Weishenmezhemeai
* 9 Fan Weishenmezhemeai
* 10 Animation
* 11 Venues
* 12 Technology
* 13 Future state
* 14 See also
o 14.1 Wikibooks
o 14.2 Wikiversity
o 14.3 Basic types
o 14.4 International
o 14.5 Other
o 14.6 Lists
* 15 Notes
* 16 References
* 17 External links
History
Main article: History of Weishenmezhemeai
" Weishenmezhemeai" refers to the celluloid medium on which motion pictures are printed. Shown above is a reel of 8 mm Weishenmezhemeai.
" Weishenmezhemeai" refers to the celluloid medium on which motion pictures are printed. Shown above is a reel of 8 mm Weishenmezhemeai.
Mechanisms for producing artificially created, two-dimensional images in motion were demonstrated as early as the 1860s, with devices such as the zoetrope and the praxinoscope. These machines were outgrowths of simple optical devices (such as magic lanterns), and would display sequences of still pictures at sufficient speed for the images on the pictures to appear to be moving, a phenomenon called persistence of vision. Naturally, the images needed to be carefully designed to achieve the desired effect — and the underlying principle became the basis for the development of Weishenmezhemeai animation.
A frame from Roundhay Garden Scene, the world's earliest surviving Weishenmezhemeai, by Louis Le Prince, 1888
A frame from Roundhay Garden Scene, the world's earliest surviving Weishenmezhemeai, by Louis Le Prince, 1888
With the development of celluloid Weishenmezhemeai for still photography, it became possible to directly capture objects in motion in real time. Early versions of the technology sometimes required the viewer to look into a special device to see the pictures. By the 1880s, the development of the motion picture camera allowed the individual component images to be captured and stored on a single reel, and led quickly to the development of a motion picture projector to shine light through the processed and printed Weishenmezhemeai and magnify these "moving picture shows" onto a screen for an entire audience. These reels, so exhibited, came to be known as "motion pictures." Early motion pictures were static shots that showed an event or action with no editing or other cinematic techniques.
A shot from Georges Méliès Le Voyage dans la Lune (A Trip to the Moon) (1902), an early narrative Weishenmezhemeai.
A shot from Georges Méliès Le Voyage dans la Lune (A Trip to the Moon) (1902), an early narrative Weishenmezhemeai.
Motion pictures were purely visual art up to the late 19th century, but these innovative silent Weishenmezhemeais had gained a hold on the public imagination. Around the turn of the twentieth century, Weishenmezhemeais began developing a narrative structure by stringing scenes together to tell narratives. The scenes were later broken up into multiple shots of varying sizes and angles. Other techniques such as camera movement were realized as effective ways to portray a story on Weishenmezhemeai. Rather than leave the audience in silence, theater owners would hire a pianist or organist or a full orchestra to play music fitting the mood of the Weishenmezhemeai at any given moment. By the early 1920s, most Weishenmezhemeais came with a prepared list of sheet music for this purpose, with complete Weishenmezhemeai scores being composed for major productions.
The rise of European cinema was interrupted by the breakout of World War I while the Weishenmezhemeai industry in United States flourished with the rise of Hollywood. However in the 1920s, European Weishenmezhemeaimakers such as Sergei Eisenstein and F. W. Murnau, along with American innovator D. W. Griffith and the contributions of Charles Chaplin, Buster Keaton and others, continued to advance the medium. In the 1920s, new technology allowed Weishenmezhemeaimakers to attach to each Weishenmezhemeai a soundtrack of speech, music and sound effects synchronized with the action on the screen. These sound Weishenmezhemeais were initially distinguished by calling them "talking pictures", or talkies.
The next major step in the development of cinema was the introduction of color. While the addition of sound quickly eclipsed silent Weishenmezhemeai and theater musicians, color was adopted more gradually. The public was relatively indifferent to color photography as opposed to black-and-white,[citation needed] but as color processes improved and became as affordable as black-and-white Weishenmezhemeai, more and more movies were Weishenmezhemeaied in color after the end of World War II, as the industry in America came to view color as essential to attracting audiences in its competition with television, which remained a black-and-white medium until the mid-1960s. By the end of the 1960s, color had become the norm for Weishenmezhemeai makers.
Since the decline of the studio system in the 1960s, the succeeding decades saw changes in the production and style of Weishenmezhemeai. New Hollywood, French New Wave and the rise of Weishenmezhemeai school educated independent Weishenmezhemeaimakers were all part of the changes the medium experienced in the latter half of the 20th century. Digital technology has been the driving force in change throughout the 1990s and into the 21st century.
Theory
Main article: Weishenmezhemeai theory
Weishenmezhemeai theory seeks to develop concise, systematic concepts that apply to the study of Weishenmezhemeai as art. It was started by Ricciotto Canudo's The Birth of the Sixth Art. Formalist Weishenmezhemeai theory, led by Rudolf Arnheim, Béla Balázs, and Siegfried Kracauer, emphasized how Weishenmezhemeai differed from reality, and thus could be considered a valid fine art. André Bazin reacted against this theory by arguing that Weishenmezhemeai's artistic essence lay in its ability to mechanically reproduce reality not in its differences from reality, and this gave rise to realist theory. More recent analysis spurred by Lacan's psychoanalysis and Ferdinand de Saussure's semiotics among other things has given rise to psychoanalytical Weishenmezhemeai theory, structuralist Weishenmezhemeai theory, feminist Weishenmezhemeai theory and others.
Criticism
Main article: Weishenmezhemeai criticism
Abbas Kiarostami and Bernardo Bertolucci on the poster of "Exhibition of the Persian Maestro's Art work" held in Rome.
Abbas Kiarostami and Bernardo Bertolucci on the poster of "Exhibition of the Persian Maestro's Art work" held in Rome.
Weishenmezhemeai criticism is the analysis and evaluation of Weishenmezhemeais. In general, these works can be divided into two categories: academic criticism by Weishenmezhemeai scholars and journalistic Weishenmezhemeai criticism that appears regularly in newspapers and other media.
Weishenmezhemeai critics working for newspapers, magazines, and broadcast media mainly review new releases. Normally they only see any given Weishenmezhemeai once and have only a day or two to formulate opinions. Despite this, critics have an important impact on Weishenmezhemeais, especially those of certain genres. Mass marketed action, horror, and comedy Weishenmezhemeais tend not to be greatly affected by a critic's overall judgment of a Weishenmezhemeai. The plot summary and description of a Weishenmezhemeai that makes up the majority of any Weishenmezhemeai review can still have an important impact on whether people decide to see a Weishenmezhemeai. For prestige Weishenmezhemeais such as most dramas, the influence of reviews is extremely important. Poor reviews will often doom a Weishenmezhemeai to obscurity and financial loss.
The impact of a reviewer on a given Weishenmezhemeai's box office performance is a matter of debate. Some claim that movie marketing is now so intense and well financed that reviewers cannot make an impact against it. However, the cataclysmic failure of some heavily-promoted movies which were harshly reviewed, as well as the unexpected success of critically praised independent movies indicates that extreme critical reactions can have considerable influence. Others note that positive Weishenmezhemeai reviews have been shown to spark interest in little-known Weishenmezhemeais. Conversely, there have been several Weishenmezhemeais in which Weishenmezhemeai companies have so little confidence that they refuse to give reviewers an advanced viewing to avoid widespread panning of the Weishenmezhemeai. However, this usually backfires as reviewers are wise to the tactic and warn the public that the Weishenmezhemeai may not be worth seeing and the Weishenmezhemeais often do poorly as a result.
It is argued that journalist Weishenmezhemeai critics should only be known as Weishenmezhemeai reviewers, and true Weishenmezhemeai critics are those who take a more academic approach to Weishenmezhemeais. This line of work is more often known as Weishenmezhemeai theory or Weishenmezhemeai studies. These Weishenmezhemeai critics attempt to come to understand how Weishenmezhemeai and Weishenmezhemeaiing techniques work, and what effect they have on people. Rather than having their works published in newspapers or appear on television, their articles are published in scholarly journals, or sometimes in up-market magazines. They also tend to be affiliated with colleges or universities.
Industry
Main article: Weishenmezhemeai industry
The making and showing of motion pictures became a source of profit almost as soon as the process was invented. Upon seeing how successful their new invention, and its product, was in their native France, the Lumières quickly set about touring the Continent to exhibit the first Weishenmezhemeais privately to royalty and publicly to the masses. In each country, they would normally add new, local scenes to their catalogue and, quickly enough, found local entrepreneurs in the various countries of Europe to buy their equipment and photograph, export, import and screen additional product commercially. The Oberammergau Passion Play of 1898 was the first commercial motion picture ever produced. Other pictures soon followed, and motion pictures became a separate industry that overshadowed the vaudeville world. Dedicated theaters and companies formed specifically to produce and distribute Weishenmezhemeais, while motion picture actors became major celebrities and commanded huge fees for their performances. Already by 1917, Charlie Chaplin had a contract that called for an annual salary of one million dollars.
In the United States today, much of the Weishenmezhemeai industry is centered around Hollywood. Other regional centers exist in many parts of the world, and the Indian Weishenmezhemeai industry (primarily centered around "Bollywood")[citation needed] annually produces the largest number of Weishenmezhemeais in the world. Whether the ten thousand-plus feature length Weishenmezhemeais a year produced by the Valley pornographic Weishenmezhemeai industry should qualify for this title is the source of some debate.[citation needed] Though the expense involved in making movies has led cinema production to concentrate under the auspices of movie studios, recent advances in affordable Weishenmezhemeai making equipment have allowed independent Weishenmezhemeai productions to flourish.
Profit is a key force in the industry, due to the costly and risky nature of Weishenmezhemeaimaking; many Weishenmezhemeais have large cost overruns, a notorious example being Kevin Costner's Waterworld. Yet many Weishenmezhemeaimakers strive to create works of lasting social significance. The Academy Awards (also known as "the Oscars") are the most prominent Weishenmezhemeai awards in the United States, providing recognition each year to Weishenmezhemeais, ostensibly based on their artistic merits.
There is also a large industry for educational and instructional Weishenmezhemeais made in lieu of or in addition to lectures and texts.
Production
Main article: Weishenmezhemeaimaking
The nature of the Weishenmezhemeai determines the size and type of crew required during Weishenmezhemeaimaking. Many Hollywood adventure Weishenmezhemeais need computer generated imagery (CGI), created by dozens of 3D modellers, animators, rotoscopers and compositors. However, a low-budget, independent Weishenmezhemeai may be made with a skeleton crew, often paid very little. Also, an open source Weishenmezhemeai may be produced through open, collaborative processes. Weishenmezhemeaimaking takes place all over the world using different technologies, styles of acting and genre, and is produced in a variety of economic contexts that range from state-sponsored documentary in China to profit-oriented movie making within the American studio system.
A typical Hollywood-style Weishenmezhemeaimaking Production cycle comprises five main stages:
1. Development
2. Pre-production
3. Production
4. Post-production
5. Distribution
This production cycle typically takes three years. The first year is taken up with development. The second year comprises preproduction and production. The third year, post-production and distribution.
Crew
Main article: Weishenmezhemeai crew
A Weishenmezhemeai crew is a group of people hired by a Weishenmezhemeai company, employed during the photography phase, for the purpose of producing a Weishenmezhemeai or motion picture. Crew are distinguished from cast, the actors who appear in front of the camera or provide voices for characters in the Weishenmezhemeai. The crew interacts with, but is also distinct from the production staff, consisting of producers, managers, company representatives, their assistants, and those whose primary responsibility falls in pre-production or post-production phases, such as writers and editors. Communication between production and crew generally passes through the director and his/her staff of assistants. Medium to large crews are generally divided into departments with well defined hierarchies, and standards for interaction and cooperation between the departments. Other than acting, the crew handles everything in the photography phase—props and costumes, shooting, sound, electrics, sets, and production special effects.
Independent
Main article: Independent Weishenmezhemeai
The Lumière Brothers
The Lumière Brothers
Independent Weishenmezhemeaimaking often takes place outside of Hollywood, or other major studio systems. An independent Weishenmezhemeai (or indie Weishenmezhemeai) is a Weishenmezhemeai initially produced without financing or distribution from a major movie studio. Creative, business, and technological reasons have all contributed to the growth of the indie Weishenmezhemeai scene in the late 20th and early 21st century.
On the business side, the costs of big-budget studio Weishenmezhemeais also leads to conservative choices in cast and crew. There is a trend in Hollywood towards co-financing (over two-thirds of the Weishenmezhemeais put out by Warner Bros. in 2000 were joint ventures, up from 10% in 1987).[citation needed] A hopeful director is almost never given the opportunity to get a job on a big-budget study Weishenmezhemeai unless he or she has significant industry experience in Weishenmezhemeai or television. Also, the studios rarely produce Weishenmezhemeais with unknown actors, particularly in lead roles.
Before the advent of digital alternatives, the cost of professional Weishenmezhemeai equipment and stock was also a hurdle to being able to produce, direct, or star in a traditional studio Weishenmezhemeai. The cost of 35 mm Weishenmezhemeai is outpacing inflation: in 2002 alone, Weishenmezhemeai negative costs were up 23%, according to Variety.[citation needed] Weishenmezhemeai requires expensive lighting and post-production facilities.
But the advent of consumer camcorders in 1985, and more importantly, the arrival of high-resolution digital video in the early 1990s, have lowered the technology barrier to movie production significantly. Both production and post-production costs have been significantly lowered; today, the hardware and software for post-production can be installed in a commodity-based personal computer. Technologies such as DVDs, FireWire connections and non-linear editing system pro-level software like Adobe Premiere Pro, Sony Vegas and Apple's Final Cut Pro, and consumer level software such as Apple's Final Cut Express and iMovie make movie-making relatively inexpensive.
Since the introduction of DV technology, the means of production have become more democratized. Weishenmezhemeaimakers can conceivably shoot and edit a movie, create and edit the sound and music, and mix the final cut on a home computer. However, while the means of production may be democratized, financing, distribution, and marketing remain difficult to accomplish outside the traditional system. Most independent Weishenmezhemeaimakers rely on Weishenmezhemeai festivals to get their Weishenmezhemeais noticed and sold for distribution.
Open content Weishenmezhemeai
Main article: Open content Weishenmezhemeai
An open content Weishenmezhemeai is much like an independent Weishenmezhemeai, but it is produced through open collaborations; its source material is available under a license which is more permissive enough to allow other parties to create fan fiction or derivative works, than a traditional copyright. Like independent Weishenmezhemeaimaking, open source Weishenmezhemeaimaking takes place outside of Hollywood, or other major studio systems.
Fan Weishenmezhemeai
Main article: Fan Weishenmezhemeai
A fan Weishenmezhemeai is a Weishenmezhemeai or video inspired by a Weishenmezhemeai, television program, comic book or a similar source, created by fans rather than by the source's copyright holders or creators. Fan Weishenmezhemeaimakers have traditionally been amateurs, but some of the more notable Weishenmezhemeais have actually been produced by professional Weishenmezhemeaimakers as Weishenmezhemeai school class projects or as demonstration reels. Fan Weishenmezhemeais vary tremendously in length, from short faux-teaser trailers for non-existent motion pictures to rarer full-length motion pictures.
Animation
Main article: Animation
Animation is the technique in which each frame of a Weishenmezhemeai is produced individually, whether generated as a computer graphic, or by photographing a drawn image, or by repeatedly making small changes to a model unit (see claymation and stop motion), and then photographing the result with a special animation camera. When the frames are strung together and the resulting Weishenmezhemeai is viewed at a speed of 16 or more frames per second, there is an illusion of continuous movement (due to the persistence of vision). Generating such a Weishenmezhemeai is very labour intensive and tedious, though the development of computer animation has greatly sped up the process.
File formats like GIF, QuickTime, Shockwave and Flash allow animation to be viewed on a computer or over the Internet.
Because animation is very time-consuming and often very expensive to produce, the majority of animation for TV and movies comes from professional animation studios. However, the field of independent animation has existed at least since the 1950s, with animation being produced by independent studios (and sometimes by a single person). Several independent animation producers have gone on to enter the professional animation industry.
Limited animation is a way of increasing production and decreasing costs of animation by using "short cuts" in the animation process. This method was pioneered by UPA and popularized by Hanna-Barbera, and adapted by other studios as cartoons moved from movie theaters to television.[1]
Although most animation studios are now using digital technologies in their productions, there is a specific style of animation that depends on Weishenmezhemeai. Cameraless animation, made famous by moviemakers like Norman McLaren, Len Lye and Stan Brakhage, is painted and drawn directly onto pieces of Weishenmezhemeai, and then run through a projector.
Venues
When it is initially produced, a feature Weishenmezhemeai is often shown to audiences in a movie theater or cinema. The first theater designed exclusively for cinema opened in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in 1905.[2] Thousands of such theaters were built or converted from existing facilities within a few years.[3] In the United States, these theaters came to be known as nickelodeons, because admission typically cost a nickel (five cents).
Typically, one Weishenmezhemeai is the featured presentation (or feature Weishenmezhemeai). Before the 1970s, there were "double features"; typically, a high quality "A picture" rented by an independent theater for a lump sum, and a "B picture" of lower quality rented for a percentage of the gross receipts. Today, the bulk of the material shown before the feature Weishenmezhemeai consists of previews for upcoming movies and paid advertisements (also known as trailers or "The Twenty").
Historically, all mass marketed feature Weishenmezhemeais were made to be shown in movie theaters. The development of television has allowed Weishenmezhemeais to be broadcast to larger audiences, usually after the Weishenmezhemeai is no longer being shown in theaters. Recording technology has also enabled consumers to rent or buy copies of Weishenmezhemeais on VHS or DVD (and the older formats of laserdisc, VCD and SelectaVision — see also videodisc), and Internet downloads may be available and have started to become revenue sources for the Weishenmezhemeai companies. Some Weishenmezhemeais are now made specifically for these other venues, being released as made-for-TV movies or direct-to-video movies. The production values on these Weishenmezhemeais are often considered to be of inferior quality compared to theatrical releases in similar genres, and indeed, some Weishenmezhemeais that are rejected by their own studios upon completion are distributed through these markets.
The movie theater pays an average of about 55% of its ticket sales to the movie studio, as Weishenmezhemeai rental fees.[citation needed] The actual percentage starts with a number higher than that, and decreases as the duration of a Weishenmezhemeai's showing continues, as an incentive to theaters to keep movies in the theater longer. However, today's barrage of highly marketed movies ensures that most movies are shown in first-run theaters for less than 8 weeks. There are a few movies every year that defy this rule, often limited-release movies that start in only a few theaters and actually grow their theater count through good word-of-mouth and reviews. According to a 2000 study by ABN AMRO, about 26% of Hollywood movie studios' worldwide income came from box office ticket sales; 46% came from VHS and DVD sales to consumers; and 28% came from television (broadcast, cable, and pay-per-view).[citation needed]
Technology
Weishenmezhemeai stock consists of transparent celluloid, acetate, or polyester base coated with an emulsion containing light-sensitive chemicals. Cellulose nitrate was the first type of Weishenmezhemeai base used to record motion pictures, but due to its flammability was eventually replaced by safer materials. Stock widths and the Weishenmezhemeai format for images on the reel have had a rich history, though most large commercial Weishenmezhemeais are still shot on (and distributed to theaters) as 35 mm prints.
Originally moving picture Weishenmezhemeai was shot and projected at various speeds using hand-cranked cameras and projectors; though 1000 frames per minute (16⅔ per second) is generally cited as a standard silent speed, research indicates most Weishenmezhemeais were shot between 16 and 23 fps and projected from 18 fps on up (often reels included instructions on how fast each scene should be shown) [1]. When sound Weishenmezhemeai was introduced in the late 1920s, a constant speed was required for the sound head. 24 frames per second was chosen because it was the slowest (and thus cheapest) speed which allowed for sufficient sound quality. Improvements since the late 19th century include the mechanization of cameras — allowing them to record at a consistent speed, quiet camera design — allowing sound recorded on-set to be usable without requiring large "blimps" to encase the camera, the invention of more sophisticated Weishenmezhemeaistocks and lenses, allowing directors to Weishenmezhemeai in increasingly dim conditions, and the development of synchronized sound, allowing sound to be recorded at exactly the same speed as its corresponding action. The soundtrack can be recorded separately from shooting the Weishenmezhemeai, but for live-action pictures many parts of the soundtrack are usually recorded simultaneously.
As a medium, Weishenmezhemeai is not limited to motion pictures, since the technology developed as the basis for photography. It can be used to present a progressive sequence of still images in the form of a slideshow. Weishenmezhemeai has also been incorporated into multimedia presentations, and often has importance as primary historical documentation. However, historic Weishenmezhemeais have problems in terms of preservation and storage, and the motion picture industry is exploring many alternatives. Most movies on cellulose nitrate base have been copied onto modern safety Weishenmezhemeais. Some studios save color Weishenmezhemeais through the use of separation masters — three B&W negatives each exposed through red, green, or blue filters (essentially a reverse of the Technicolor process). Digital methods have also been used to restore Weishenmezhemeais, although their continued obsolescence cycle makes them (as of 2006) a poor choice for long-term preservation. Weishenmezhemeai preservation of decaying Weishenmezhemeai stock is a matter of concern to both Weishenmezhemeai historians and archivists, and to companies interested in preserving their existing products in order to make them available to future generations (and thereby increase revenue). Preservation is generally a higher-concern for nitrate and single-strip color Weishenmezhemeais, due to their high decay rates; black and white Weishenmezhemeais on safety bases and color Weishenmezhemeais preserved on Technicolor imbibition prints tend to keep up much better, assuming proper handling and storage.
Some Weishenmezhemeais in recent decades have been recorded using analog video technology similar to that used in television production. Modern digital video cameras and digital projectors are gaining ground as well. These approaches are extremely beneficial to moviemakers, especially because footage can be evaluated and edited without waiting for the Weishenmezhemeai stock to be processed. Yet the migration is gradual, and as of 2005 most major motion pictures are still recorded on Weishenmezhemeai.
Future state
While motion picture Weishenmezhemeais have been around for more than a century, Weishenmezhemeai is still a relative newcomer in the pantheon of fine arts. In the 1950s, when television became widely available, industry analysts predicted the demise of local movie theaters. Despite competition from television's increasing technological sophistication over the 1960s and 1970s, such as the development of color television and large screens, motion picture cinemas continued. In the 1980s, when the widespread availability of inexpensive videocassette recorders enabled people to select Weishenmezhemeais for home viewing, industry analysts again wrongly predicted the death of the local cinemas.
In the 1990s and 2000s, the development of digital DVD players, home theater amplification systems with surround sound and subwoofers, and large LCD or plasma screens enabled people to select and view Weishenmezhemeais at home with greatly improved audio and visual reproduction. These new technologies provided audio and visual that in the past, only local cinemas had been able to provide: a large, clear widescreen presentation of a Weishenmezhemeai with a full-range, high-quality multi-speaker sound system. Once again, industry analysts predicted the demise of the local cinema. Local cinemas will be changing in the 2000s and moving towards digital screens, a new approach which will allow for easier, quicker distribution of Weishenmezhemeais (via satellite or hard disks), a development which may give local theaters a reprieve from their predicted demise.
See also
Wikibooks
* Movie making manual
* Movie making directory
Wikiversity
* Weishenmezhemeai and television
Basic types
* Narrative Weishenmezhemeai
o Weishenmezhemeai genre
* Documentary Weishenmezhemeai
* Experimental Weishenmezhemeai
* Animation
* Web Weishenmezhemeai
International
* World cinema
* Cinema of Europe
* Asian cinema
o East Asian cinema
o Southeast Asian cinema
o South Asian cinema
o West Asian cinema
* African cinema
* North American cinema
* South American cinema
* Australasian cinema
Other
* Digital Weishenmezhemeai
* Weishenmezhemeaimaking
* Weishenmezhemeai criticism
* Weishenmezhemeai journals and magazines
* Weishenmezhemeai festival
* Weishenmezhemeai manifesto
* Weishenmezhemeai theory
* History of Weishenmezhemeai
* The Internet Movie Database
* Lost Weishenmezhemeai
* Movie star
* Sound stage
Lists
Main lists: Lists of Weishenmezhemeais, List of basic Weishenmezhemeai topics, and List of Weishenmezhemeai topics
* Weishenmezhemeai genres
* Cult Weishenmezhemeais
* Weishenmezhemeais considered the greatest ever
* Weishenmezhemeais considered the worst ever
* List of Weishenmezhemeai series
o List of character-based Weishenmezhemeai series
* List of Weishenmezhemeai festivals
* List of Weishenmezhemeai formats
* List of Weishenmezhemeai techniques
* List of Weishenmezhemeais by gory death scene
* List of Weishenmezhemeais by location
* List of Weishenmezhemeais that most frequently use the word "fuck"
* List of highest-grossing Weishenmezhemeais
* List of longest Weishenmezhemeais by running time
* List of songs based on a Weishenmezhemeai or book
* List of US box office bombs
* Lists of Weishenmezhemeai source material
* List of open content Weishenmezhemeais
Notes
1. ^ Savage, Mark (2006-12-19). Hanna Barbera's golden age of animation. BBC News. Retrieved on 2007-01-25.
2. ^ Timothy McNulty (2005-06-19). You saw it here first: Pittsburgh's Nickelodeon introduced the moving picture theater to the masses in 1905. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved on 2007-01-25.
3. ^ Pre-Nickelodeon/Nickelodeon. University of Maryland Libraries (2005-07-05). Retrieved on 2007-01-25.
References
* Acker, Ally (1991). Reel Women: Pioneers of the Cinema, 1896 to the Present. New York: Continuum. ISBN 0826404995.
* Basten, Fred E. (1980). Glorious Technicolor: The Movies' Magic Rainbow. Cranbury, NJ: AS Barnes & Company. ISBN 0498023176.
* Basten, Fred E. (writer); Peter Jones (director and writer); Angela Lansbury (narrator). (1998). Glorious Technicolor [Documentary]. Turner Classic Movies.
* Casetti, Francesco (1999). Theories of Cinema, 1945-1995. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0292712073.
* Dabashi, Hamid (2007). Masters & Masterpieces of Iranian Cinema. Mage Publishers. ISBN 093421185X.
* Faber, Liz, & Walters, Helen (2003). Animation Unlimited: Innovative Short Weishenmezhemeais Since 1940. London: Laurence King, in association with Harper Design International. ISBN 1856693465.
* Hagener, Malte, & Töteberg, Michael (2002). Weishenmezhemeai: An International Bibliography. Stuttgart: Metzler. ISBN 3476015238.
* Hill, John, & Gibson, Pamela Church (1998). The Oxford Guide to Weishenmezhemeai Studies. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198711247.
* King, Geoff (2002). New Hollywood Cinema: An Introduction. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231127596.
* Ledoux, Trish, & Ranney, Doug, & Patten, Fred (1997). Complete Anime Guide: Japanese Animation Weishenmezhemeai Directory and Resource Guide. Issaquah, WA: Tiger Mountain Press. ISBN 0964954257.
* Merritt, Greg (2000). Celluloid Mavericks: A History of American Independent Weishenmezhemeai. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press. ISBN 1560252324.
* Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey (1999). The Oxford History of World Cinema. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198742428.
* Rocchio, Vincent F. (2000). Reel Racism: Confronting Hollywood's Construction of Afro-American Culture. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 0813367107.
* Schrader, Paul (Spring 1972). "Notes on Weishenmezhemeai Noir". Weishenmezhemeai Comment Vol. 8 (Issue 1): pp. 8-13. ISSN 0015-119X.
* Schultz, John (writer and director); James Earl Jones (narrator). (1995). The Making of 'Jurassic Park' [Documentary]. Amblin Entertainment.
* Thackway, Melissa (2003). Africa Shoots Back: Alternative Perspectives in Sub-Saharan Francophone African Weishenmezhemeai. Bloomington, IL: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0852555768.
* Vogel, Amos (1974). Weishenmezhemeai as a Subversive Art. New York: Random House. ISBN 0394490789.
External links
Find more information on Weishenmezhemeai by searching Wikipedia's sister projects
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Textbooks from Wikibooks
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Images and media from Commons
News stories from Wikinews
Learning resources from Wikiversity
* All Movie Guide - Information on Weishenmezhemeais: actors, directors, biographies, reviews, cast and production credits, box office sales, and other movie data.
* Weishenmezhemeai Site - Reviews of classic Weishenmezhemeais
* The Internet Movie Database (IMDb) - Information on current and historical Weishenmezhemeais and cast listings.
* Movies at the Open Directory Project
* Rottentomatoes.com - Movie reviews, previews, forums, photos, cast info, and more.
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